Review: Facial Anthropometric, Landmark Extraction, and Nasal Reconstruction Technology

Abstract

Facial anthropometrics are measurements of human faces and are important figures that are used in many different fields, such as cosmetic surgery, protective gear design, reconstruction, etc. Therefore, the first procedure is to extract facial landmarks, then measurements are carried out by professional devices or based on experience. The aim of this review is to provide an update and review of 3D facial measurements, facial landmarks, and nasal reconstruction literature. The novel methods to detect facial landmarks including non-deep and deep learning are also introduced in this paper. Moreover, the nose is the most attractive part of the face, so nasal reconstruction or rhinoplasty is a matter of concern, and this is a significant challenge. The documents on the use of 3D printing technology as an aid in clinical diagnosis and during rhinoplasty surgery are also surveyed. Although scientific technology development with many algorithms for facial landmarks extraction have been proposed, their application in the medical field is still scarce. Connectivity between studies in different fields is a major challenge today; it opens up opportunities for the development of technology in healthcare. This review consists of the recent literature on 3D measurements, identification of landmarks, particularly in the medical field, and finally, nasal reconstruction technology. It is a helpful reference for researchers in these fields.

The value of virtual simulation for pre-operative planning in Rhinoplasty

“…Imaging is widely acknowledged as a conventional technique in the field of facial plastic surgeries and offers significant benefits to both patients and surgeons [15] . The progress in computer technology and software has enabled the utilization of digital alteration of pre-operative imagery to assist in forecasting the result of a rhinoplasty [16] . The utilization of 3D technologies in computer simulations has grown more prevalent in the field of rhinoplasty [17] .…”

Computational Human Nasal Reconstruction Based on Facial Landmarks

“…Landmarks are the anatomical features of each human face, and their relative positions defined on the soft-tissue surfaces [10] are used for anthropometric reconstruction by both manual and computational methodology (Figure 1). For example, Seshadri et al [13] implemented the active shape model (denoted as ASM) for locating the landmarks on frontal faces and specified a total of 79 marks which are regarded as optimally and accu-rately annotated based on facial geometry. Additionally, Zhang, Jie, et al [13] work on the coarse-to-fine auto-encoder networks (or CFAN) using the landmark's relative positions for facial detection.…”

“…For example, Seshadri et al [13] implemented the active shape model (denoted as ASM) for locating the landmarks on frontal faces and specified a total of 79 marks which are regarded as optimally and accu-rately annotated based on facial geometry. Additionally, Zhang, Jie, et al [13] work on the coarse-to-fine auto-encoder networks (or CFAN) using the landmark's relative positions for facial detection. Conclusively, the CFAN is superior to the existing DCNN, which is unable to handle fractional stoppage since the points are defined independently from the others [21].…”

“…A study demonstrating an effective reconstruction from a single image of the human face [12] presented its approach of image shading information and generic shaping to acquire the facial features (i.e., the depth of points) that are considered the basis for a reference head deformation according to the extracted depth of the image. In a separate study [13], the authors pointed out that the nose was the most attractive part of the face. Thus, studies on plastic surgery are relevant, and there are many aspects of plastic surgery that require further research.…”

Reliability Analysis of Vertebral Landmark Labelling on Lumbar Spine X-ray Images

“…For objective and quantitative diagnosis, it is necessary to define anatomical landmark points such as a central point of the vertebral body or the four outer corner points of the two-dimensional planar shape of the vertebra projected in X-ray image [ 20 , 21 ]. Since points are the most fundamental geometric features, they are commonly used not only in medical images but also in other fields, such as face and human body analyses [ 22 , 23 ]. Points can be used to generate the other landmarks, including lines and polygons, and useful measurements such as lengths, angles, curvatures and areas can be calculated based on the point locations.…”