Response Styles in Marketing Research: A Cross-National Investigation

Baumgartner, Hans; Steenkamp, J.B.E.M.

doi:10.1509/jmkr.38.2.143.18840

Cited by 973 publications

(986 citation statements)

References 42 publications

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“…If these strategies are insufficient to prevent acquiescence, post hoc controls should be built into the questionnaire. For example, balanced scales consisting of an equal number of regular and reversed items should be used, or unrelated items should be included that enable the formation of an explicit measure of acquiescence (Baumgartner & Steenkamp, 2001). …”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Reversed item bias: An integrative model.

Weijters

Baumgartner

Schillewaert

2013

Psychological Methods

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In the recent methodological literature, various models have been proposed to account for the phenomenon that reversed items (defined as items for which respondents' scores have to be recoded in order to make the direction of keying consistent across all items) tend to lead to problematic responses. In this paper we propose an integrative conceptualization of three important sources of reversed item method bias (acquiescence, careless responding, and confirmation bias) and specify a multi-sample confirmatory factor analysis model with two method factors to empirically test the hypothesized mechanisms, using explicit measures of acquiescence and carelessness and experimentally manipulated versions of a questionnaire that varies three item arrangements and the keying direction of the first item measuring the focal construct. We explain the mechanisms, review prior attempts to model reversed item bias, present our new model, and apply it to responses to a four-item self-esteem scale (N = 306) and the six-item Revised Life Orientation Test (N = 595). Based on the literature review and the empirical results, we formulate recommendations on how to use reversed items in questionnaires.Key words: reverse-keyed items, method effects, response styles, survey research, structural equation modeling. 1 Reverse-keyed items are items for which respondents' scores have to be recoded (i.e., reflected about the midpoint of the rating scale) in order for all the items in a multi-item scale to have the same directional relationship with the underlying construct of interest. The use of reverse-keyed items (also called oppositely-keyed, reversed-polarity, reverse-worded, negatively worded, negatively-keyed, keyed-false, or simply reversed items) is sometimes recommended to disrupt non-substantive responding and to enable the detection and control of aberrant response behavior when it occurs (e.g., Nunnally, 1978, Chapter 15;Paulhus, 1991).However, research has shown that reversed items often lead to problems, particularly poor model fit of factor models (e.g., Marsh, 1986). In some cases, the problem is not simply that the model based on the originally hypothesized substantive factor structure is found to be inadequate, but that the lack of fit stimulates the revision of a more parsimonious conceptualization and the specification of additional substantive factors. For example, a unidimensional model in which high and low self-esteem are considered to be opposite poles of a single underlying continuum might be rejected in favor of a model in which separate, correlated factors are posited for positive and negative self-esteem corresponding to regular and reversed items (cf. Horan, DiStefano, & Motl, 2003;Motl & DiStefano, 2002).A variety of models have been proposed to take into account differences in responding to regular and reverse-keyed items and to avoid the mistaken specification of additional substantive factors, including models with method factors or correlated uniquenesses for either the regular or the reversed items ...

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Reversed item bias: An integrative model.

Weijters

Baumgartner

Schillewaert

2013

Psychological Methods

Self Cite

268

204

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“…In particular, a) we ensured that only Russian tourists participated to reduce the coverage error (Moutinho & Chien, 2007), b) we reflect the perceptions of 14.2% of Russian tourists that visited Greece in 2014(HCAA, 2014 to avoid sampling error (Zikmund & Babin, 2007), c) we achieved an 83.86% response rate, which suggests that nonresponse error is not an issue (Baumgartner and Steenkamp, 2001), and d) we added an "0 = I don't know/I cannot reply" option to the 7-point Likert scale to reduce measurement error (Weijters, Cabooter, & Schillewaert, 2010).…”

Section: Sampling Procedures and Data Collectionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Destination images, holistic images and personal normative beliefs: Predictors of intention to revisit a destination

et al. 2016

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This research examines the complex relationship between components of images of destinations and behavioral intentions, incorporating two pivotal constructs that have not been explored in the related literature, namely holistic image and personal normative beliefs (PNBs). Previous studies incorporating destination images as predictors of intention to revisit have mostly investigated their direct effect. This research integrates holistic image as a mediator and PNBs as a moderating variable. The findings verify the mediating role of holistic image for predicting tourists’ intentions to revisit a destination, supporting a model that incorporates a partial effect and two indirect mediations. Interestingly, only affective and conative images contribute to the prediction of tourists’ intentions to revisit a destination through the holistic image towards this destination. Moreover, PNBs moderate the effect that conative destination images have on tourists’ holistic images. Practically, the research sheds light to factors that affect tourists' tendency to select a tourism destination, which can serve as a basis for tailoring the effective positioning of destinations

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“…A three-process response model. Past work on response style (Baumgartner & Steenkamp, 2001;Cronbach, 1950;Rorer, 1965;Paulhus, 1991) showed that a respondent's use of a rating scale can be determined by variables that are unrelated to the attitude being measured. For example, some respondents may avoid using extreme response categories even if they feel strongly about a topic.…”

Section: Involvement Direction and Intensity In Likert Scalesmentioning

confidence: 99%

Modeling multiple response processes in judgment and choice.

Böckenholt

2012

Psychological Methods

151

214

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In this article, I show how item response models can be used to capture multiple response processes in psychological applications. Intuitive and analytical responses, agree–disagree answers, response refusals, socially desirable responding, differential item functioning, and choices among multiple options are considered. In each of these cases, I show that the response processes can be measured via pseudoitems derived from the observed responses. The estimation of these models via standard software programs that allow for missing data is also discussed. The article concludes with two detailed applications that illustrate the prevalence of multiple response processes.

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Response Styles in Marketing Research: A Cross-National Investigation

Cited by 973 publications

References 42 publications

Reversed item bias: An integrative model.

Reversed item bias: An integrative model.

Destination images, holistic images and personal normative beliefs: Predictors of intention to revisit a destination

Modeling multiple response processes in judgment and choice.

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