Resource constraints on the battery energy storage potential for grid and transportation applications

Abstract

Batteries have great promise for facilitating the grid integration of renewable energy and powering electric vehicles. One critical concern for the scale-up of battery production is the availability of the elements used in battery couples. We provide the first systematic comparison of supply limits and extraction costs of the elements in battery couples against short-and long-term scaling goals. Several couples can scale well beyond short-and long-term grid-storage goals, including: Na/S, Zn/Cl 2 , and FeCl 2 /CrCl 3. Li-based couples currently have the performance characteristics most suitable for electric vehicles, yet scaling beyond 10 MM vehicles per year will demand significant increases in Li production. We also provide a framework to evaluate new couples, such as those based on Mg, which may be an alternative to Li-based couples. While the extraction costs of the elements used in current battery couples are, in many cases, below 10 $ kWh −1 , the cost of finished battery cells is in the range of 150-1000 $ kWh −1 , well above cost targets of 100 $ kWh −1 for both grid and transportation applications. Currently high costs remain a critical barrier to the widespread scale-up of battery energy storage.

Effect of Iron Substitution in the Electrochemical Performance of Na3V2(PO4)3as Cathode for Na-Ion Batteries

“…A full implementation of LIB in the electric vehicle market would involve important constraints on Li production and an undesirable increase of the cost of Li is expected at the long term. [1][2][3][4] For these reasons, market is alternatively looking forward beyond LIB and new chemistries are being explored. [5][6][7][8] Sodium is an abundant and non-toxic alkali element which can be implemented in insertion based batteries.…”

“…Good results have been evidenced in both layered oxides and NASICON-type phosphates when applied to both lithium and sodium ion batteries. However, attempts of preparing substituted Na 3 V 2 (PO 4 ) 3 have not been yet published to our knowledge.…”

Von Lithium‐ zu Natriumionenbatterien: Vorteile, Herausforderungen und Überraschendes

“…Die Entwicklung mçglicher Alternativen ist daher auch von strategischer Bedeutung.P otenzielle Ressourcenverknappung beim Hochskalieren der Batterieproduktion fürE lektrofahrzeuge und Netzspeicherung wird von Wadia et al diskutiert. [4] Natrium ist dank seiner ähnlichen chemischen Eigenschaften ein naheliegender Ersatz fürL ithium. Es sei daran erinnert, dass in den frühen Tagen der LIB-Forschung auch Natriumionenbatterien (SIBs) untersucht wurden.…”

A Data-Driven Learning-Based Continuous-Time Estimation and Simulation Method for Energy Efficiency and Coulombic Efficiency of Lithium Ion Batteries

“…Energy efficiency is an important parameter used to evaluate the performance of various batteries [12]. In general, the definition of energy efficiency is the ratio between discharged electrical energy and charged electrical energy, which can be expressed with the following equation [8]:…”

“…Due to these advantages, lithium ion batteries are widely used as basic energy storage components in transportation applications [10][11][12]. Furthermore, in modern railway applications, safety, high power density, and high efficiency are commonly required [13][14][15][16][17] characteristics of energy storage components.…”