Mobile and stationary energy storage by rechargeable batteries is a topic of broad societal and economical relevance. Lithium-ion battery (LIB) technology is at the forefront of the development, but a massively growing market will likely put severe pressure on resources and supply chains. Recently, sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been reconsidered with the aim of providing a lower-cost alternative that is less susceptible to resource and supply risks. On paper, the replacement of lithium by sodium in a battery seems straightforward at first, but unpredictable surprises are often found in practice. What happens when replacing lithium by sodium in electrode reactions? This review provides a state-of-the art overview on the redox behavior of materials when used as electrodes in lithium-ion and sodium-ion batteries, respectively. Advantages and challenges related to the use of sodium instead of lithium are discussed.
Cobalt-and nickel-free cathode materials are desirable for developing low-cost sodium-ion batteries (SIBs). Compared to the single P-type and O-type structures, biphasic P/O structures become a topic of interest thanks to improved performance. However, the added complexity complicates the understanding of the storage mechanism and the phase behavior is still unclear, especially over consecutive cycling. Here, the properties of biphasic P2(34%)/O3(60%) Na 0.8 Li 0.2 Fe 0.2 Mn 0.6 O 2 and its behavior at different states of charge/discharge are reported on. The material is composed of single phase O3 and P2/O3 biphasic particles. Sodium occupies the alkali layers, whereas lithium predominantly (95%) is located in the transition metal layer. An initial reversible capacity of 174 mAh g-1 is delivered with a retention of 82% dominated by Fe 3+ /Fe 4+ along with contributions from oxygen and partial Mn 3+/4+ redox. Cycling leads to complex phase transitions and ion migration. The biphasic nature is nevertheless preserved, with lithium acting as the structure stabilizer.
Here, we bring to the readers the outcome of Group 1 discussion: Future after lithium. The group has covered battery chemistries that are often being considered as "post-Li" battery technologies. After extensive deliberations, the group concluded that the current vibe about the need of future technologies after the lithium era and, thus, the quest for which new technologies can replace lithium-based battery technology, are somewhat inappropriate and misleading (partially incorrect), respectively. The discussion group reached the conclusion that it would be wise to approach and refer at these technologies as "side-byside" to Li-based batteries. As such, we elaborate here in details on these "side-by-side" promising technologies.Evaluation of the battery concepts depends on several aspects, among which performance is one of the key parameters. Hence, the performance comparison of different cell chemistry is everything, but immediate. As a matter of the fact, the European Commission, e.g., funded the ETIP Batteries Europe (https:// batterieseurope.eu/) as the "one-stop shop" for the batteryrelated R&I ecosystem and aims to accelerate the establishment of a competitive, sustainable and efficient value chain and globally competitive European battery industry through Research and Innovation. Within this ETIP, several working groups have been established, including the one dealing with new and emerging cell technologies. This group, led by Prof. Edström, Dr. Steven and one of the co-authors of this manuscript (SP), is expected to identify the key performance indicators (KPIs) enabling a fair comparison of commercial, new and emerging cell technologies with respect to their applications. However, these KPIs have not been identified yet. Hence, the current study aims to provide insights into "side-by-side" new emerging technologies and also to report a comparative analysis to Li-ion batteries by using a simple approach (i.e., mainly considering cost, energy density, and cycle life). Nonetheless, due to the fact that most of the "side-by-side" technologies are at the early stage of development, a comparison among them is not trivial. Thus, we point out in this progress report only the possibly suitable applications of the new technologies without a comparison. Sodium-Ion Batteries (Na-Ion) IntroductionTo relieve the environmental issues, solving the problem caused by intermittent availability of renewable energy resource, e.g., solar energy, wind energy and geothermal energy, is mandatory. Thus, energy storage systems, especially electrochemical energy storage (EES) systems including batteries, supercapacitors, etc., are in the focus of intensive research and development efforts. [1][2][3] In 1991, the Japanese Sony Corp. developed the first commercial lithium-ion batteries with LiCoO 2 and graphite as electrode materials. [4,5] With the blooming of portable electronic Yasin Emre Durmus is currently a PostDoc researcher at the Forschungszentrum Jülich (Germany) within the Institute of Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9). ...
Before we further discuss the EEG setup, it is better to elucidate the generation of the biopotential. Potential changes on the head surface are caused by the electrical activity of cells over neurons and/or tissues as the concentration change of the charges in cells. This charge concentration change is caused by evoking and human activities. [4] The electrical signals caused by the evoking and activities are called as evoked potentials (EP) and event-related potentials (ERP), respectively. [5] Figure 2 schematically shows the generation of the bioelectricity and how the bioelectrical signal is recorded. [6] A single neuron potential change is associated with the activity or the movement (Figure 2a). The signals of the adjacent and/or coordinated neurons can also be detected, which indicates the local field potential (Figure 2b). The signal neuron and local field potential reflects the status of the brain locals. They are important indicators to the brain diseases. Nevertheless, EEG records a portion of electrical signals co-occurring in the brain (Figure 2c). [7] EEG is a comprehensive system for monitoring the head bioelectrical signals. It consists of several components, including electrode (with conductive gels for the wet electrode), amplifiers with filters, converters, recording device, and analyzer. [8] Electrode detects the electrical signals over the surface of the head. Amplifier brings the detected signals into a digitalized range which can be accurately analyzed. Converter has the function to transform the electrical signal to the digital language. Recording and analyzing devices are able to store, analyze, plot, and display the data. [9] The brain electricity amplitude is in a range of 0.5-100 µV with four different frequencies. They are beta (>13 Hz), alfa (8-13 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), and delta (0.5-4 Hz), as shown in Figure 3. Brain wave with Alfa frequency is characteristic to EEG, especially for an adult while blinking. Alfa wave can also be easily obtained between the posterior and occipital and the central lobes with an amplitude around 50 mV. Beta wave is a characteristic signal during sleep with a rapid eye movement. Theta rhythm can be found for a semi-sleep state. The delta rhythm usually appears during sleep. [1a,9] Electrode is an elementary component to the EEG system, as it directly contacts to the scalp and captures the electrical signal. The material for the electrode is therefore very crucial to the EEG system, which normally determines the EEG signal quality. Wet electrode using Ag/AgCl as the electrode material and a liquid gel as electrolyte to improve the conductivity has been adopted for many years. Recently, the semi-dry electrodes Electroencephalography (EEG) is extensively applied in brain cognition, clinical diagnosis, and artificial intelligence through detecting and analyzing the human brain biopotential. The Ag/AgCl combined with a conductive gel is the most widely used electrode in EEG. However, pre-preparation before testing is time-consuming and complicated. The dried ...
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