“…ACE and ENPEP are central enzymes in the RAS, catalysing the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, and angiotensin II to angiotensin III, respectively. Angiotensin II and III have various effects, mediated primarily through angiotensin receptor I (ATR1) (Jackson et al, 2018), such as the induction of pro-survival signalling, via NF-KB mediated anti-apoptotic molecules, or through PI3K-Akt mediated suppression of caspases (George et al, 2010), the induction of cellular proliferation (Clark et al, 2011; Perdomo-Pantoja et al, 2018) and loss of blood brain EC barrier properties (Biancardi and Stern, 2016). More high grade astrocytoma tumour cells express ATR1, compared to lower grade, and expression is associated with cell proliferation, vascularisation and shorter survival (Arrieta et al, 2008).…”