Renal Regeneration: The Role of Extracellular Matrix and Current ECM‐Based Tissue Engineered Strategies

Abstract

Natural extracellular matrices (ECM) are currently being studied as an alternative source for organ transplantation or as new solutions to treat kidney injuries, which can evolve to end-stage renal disease, a life devastating condition. This paper provides an overview on the current knowledge in kidney ECM and its usefulness on future investigations. The composition and structure of kidney ECM is herein associated with its intrinsic capacity of remodeling and repair after insult. Moreover, it provides a deeper insight on altered ECM components during disease. The use of decellularized kidney matrices is discussed in the second part of the review, with emphasis on how these matrices contribute to tissue-specific differentiation of embryonic, pluripotent, and other stem cells. The evolution on the field toward different uses of xenogeneic ECM as a biological scaffold material is discussed, namely the major outcomes on whole kidney recellularization and its in vivo implantation. At last, the recent literature on the use of processed kidney decellularized ECM to produce diverse biomaterial substrates, such as hydrogels, membranes, and bioinks are reviewed, with emphasis on future perspectives of its translation into the clinic.

Macrophage‐mediated extracellular matrix remodeling after fat grafting in nude mice

“…There was even the appearance of irregularly concentrated collagen fibers in the central part, leading to the failure of adipocyte regeneration due to the loss of the cellular niche and support. 49,50 At the junction between the periphery and the center of the grafts, where areas with less condensed collagen fibers are located, small new adipocytes regenerated in suitable survival ECM framework. As evidenced by the time and space dependent between ECM remodeling modes and adipocyte survival and regeneration, it was assumed that ECM remodeling correlated with adipocyte survival and adipogenesis.…”

“…In the late post‐transplant period, due to the limitation in the cell infiltration time and environmental constraints, the graft‐derived ECM lost its structure and integrity and a complete ECM network is not set up yet in the center of the graft. There was even the appearance of irregularly concentrated collagen fibers in the central part, leading to the failure of adipocyte regeneration due to the loss of the cellular niche and support 49,50 . At the junction between the periphery and the center of the grafts, where areas with less condensed collagen fibers are located, small new adipocytes regenerated in suitable survival ECM framework.…”

Research progress in decellularized extracellular matrix hydrogels for intervertebral disc degeneration

“…Since dECM hydrogels from the porcine bladder were prepared by Freytes et al, 77 the heart, 78 liver, 79 kidney, 80 small intestinal submucosa (SIS), [81][82][83] and meniscus 84 have been successfully prepared as dECM hydrogels. The current sources of dECM hydrogels are xenogeneic animal sources and human homologous sources.…”

Biomaterials of human source for 3D printing strategies

“…The use of xenogeneic biomaterials-which are mainly extracted as single ECM proteins (such as collagen) or entire heart valves or myocardial patches-is pushed through the lack of donor organs and the easy availability of these sources [223]. Through glutaraldehyde treatment, for instance, it is possible to clinically implant these materials without major concerns.…”