Relationships Between Handwriting Components and Underlying Perceptual-Motor Functions Among Students During Copying and Dictation Tasks

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the interrelations between legibility of handwriting, atomistic factors, handwriting speed, and perceptual-motor body functions. The authors aimed to determine the contribution of these factors in predicting students' handwriting performance during copying and dictation and to assess performance differences under both of these writing conditions. The handwriting performance of 35 third graders with writing difficulties and 35 control subjects was assessed during copying and dictation. The control group performed significantly better on all measures during both copying and dictation. Only overall legibility predicted handwriting performance during copying, whereas both speed and overall legibility predicted handwriting performance during dictation. Only spatial organization significantly predicted overall legibility for both groups and conditions. The findings suggest that handwriting speed and overall legibility are separate constructs and that different components underlie writing during copying and dictation. These results have clinical implications for handwriting evaluation and intervention.

Developmental Test of Visual–Motor Integration (VMI): An Effective Outcome Measure for Handwriting Interventions for Kindergarten, First-Grade, and Second-Grade Students?

“…In addition, results of this study support previous research identifying correlations between the constructs of visualmotor integration (as measured by the VMI) and handwriting. Numerous studies examining relationships between the VMI and handwriting have demonstrated moderate correlations (.30-.70; Barnhardt et al, 2005;Brossard-Racine et al, 2011;Cornhill & Case-Smith, 1996;Daly et al, 2003;Parush et al, 2010;Volman et al, 2006;Weintraub & Graham, 2000). This study's findings reveal small to moderate correlations between VMI scores and handwriting test scores (THS-R and MHA).…”

“…However, the VMI is used not just as a screening or assessment tool but also as an outcome measure to determine improvements in visual-motor integration skills after handwriting interventions (Howe, Roston, Sheu, & Hinojosa, 2013). Although many reports in the literature have documented significant correlations between handwriting and visual-motor coordination (Barnhardt, Borsting, Deland, Pham, & Vu, 2005;Brossard-Racine, Majnemer, Shevell, Snider, & Bélanger, 2011;Cornhill & Case-Smith, 1996;Daly, Kelley, & Krauss, 2003;Parush, Lifshitz, Yochman, & Weintraub, 2010;Volman, van Schendel, & Jongmans, 2006;Weintraub & Graham, 2000), the evidence is inconclusive as to whether the VMI is appropriate for use as an outcome measure after handwriting interventions.…”

“…(p. 734) Research has consistently identified significant correlations between visualmotor integration (as measured by the VMI) and handwriting. The correlational research has strong evidence demonstrating moderate relationships between the VMI and handwriting measures (Barnhardt et al, 2005;Brossard-Racine et al, 2011;Cornhill & Case-Smith, 1996;Daly et al, 2003;Parush et al, 2010;Volman et al, 2006;Weintraub & Graham, 2000), although some authors have been quick to recommend caution in interpreting correlational studies (Goyen & Duff, 2005;Tseng & Cermak, 1993). Twenty years ago, Tseng and Cermak (1993) wrote, "Authors have assumed that if there is a correlation between performance on the component and handwriting, that problems in the component underlie the handwriting problem, and that remediation of the component will result in improvement in handwriting" (p. 924).…”

Visual motor integration as a screener for responders and non-responders in preschool and early school years: implications for inclusive assessment in Oman

“…Even though a number of studies have considered various VMI instruments culture-free assessment tools (Overvelde and Hulstijn 2011;Parush et al 2010), some study results have shown different visual-motor skill performance patterns in different cultures, especially among preschool and early school-age children (Tekok-Kilic, Elmastas-Dikec, and Can 2010). These findings let some researchers to argue against the concept of culture-free neuropsychological non-verbal assessments (Roselli and Ardila 2003).…”

The relationship between handwriting, reading, fine motor and visual-motor skills in kindergarteners

“…In recent years, there has been a considerable amount of research on the process of writing (MacArthur, Graham, & Fitzgerald, 2006), but this study investigates the act of writing, or as it is known in the educational field, -handwriting.‖ These descriptions are used to distinguish between writing and handwriting for this study. Writing enables individuals to express their knowledge and thoughts (Berninger, 1994;McHale & Cermak, 1992;Parush, Lifshitz, Yochman, & Weintraub, 2010); handwriting, e.g., using the hand to form letters on a page, is essential in the writing process and can predict the amount and quality of children's written ideas (Edwards, 2003;Graham, Berninger, Abbott, Abbott, & Whitaker, 1997;Graham, Harris, & Fink, 2000;Jones & Christensen, 1999). Even though Graham, Harris and Fink (2000) found handwriting was causally related to writing, little attention has been focused on the instruction of writing mechanics (e.g., letter formation, size, spacing); as a result, students are struggling with foundational handwriting skills that affect legibility and, ultimately writing performance.…”