Relations Between Situational Factors and the Comparative Referents Used by Employees

Oldham, Greg R.; Kulik, Carol T.; Stepina, Lee P.; Ambrose, Maureen L.

doi:10.5465/256226

Cited by 68 publications

(88 citation statements)

References 10 publications

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“…Of existing organizational studies, Goodman (1974) had respondents list a limited set of referents, but did not examine gender effects; Oldham, Kulik, Stepina and Ambrose (1986b) had respondents identify a primary referent, but did not examine gender effects; Crosby (1982) had respondents list their first three referents, but did not examine a single organization or the comparison level of these referents (see also Steil and Hay 1997); Shah (1998) controlled for demographic variables such as gender, education level, tenure and age, and requested that respondents select specific referents, but, aside from the average number selected, did not provide either the gender or status level of those referents.…”

Section: The Current Approachmentioning

confidence: 99%

Women's and Men's Career Referents: How Gender Composition and Comparison Level Shape Career Expectations

Gibson

Lawrence

2010

Organization Science

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This study examines how women's and men's career referents—the people they see as having similar careers—affect career expectations. We raise two questions. First, what is the relative effect of the gender composition and comparison level of career referents on such expectations? Second, what happens to career expectations when women and men identify career referents at the same comparison level? Current research suggests that women have lower career expectations than men because they compare themselves with women who hold lower-level positions than the career referents identified by men. Thus, if women and men identify with career referents at a similar level, their career expectations should be equal. However, this chain of reasoning has not been tested. Using data collected from a large organization, we identify both the specific individuals that women and men perceive as having similar careers and these referents' career levels, defined as their hierarchical level in the firm. The results show that the level of career referents is more important than their gender composition in explaining individuals' career expectations. In contrast to extant explanations, the results show that even when women identify career referents at the same levels as men do, they still exhibit significantly lower career expectations. Drawing on social comparison theory, we speculate that this occurs because men's expectations are bolstered by extreme upward comparisons, whereas women's expectations are dampened, perhaps because they see high-achieving others as representing a less probable goal.

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Section: The Current Approachmentioning

confidence: 99%

Women's and Men's Career Referents: How Gender Composition and Comparison Level Shape Career Expectations

Gibson

Lawrence

2010

Organization Science

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“…A quantitative 45-item survey was used to assess a number of psychological variables, which included Worker Relations (Biggs, Swailes, & Baker, In press), Organisational Commitment (Cook & Wall, 1980), Job Security (Oldham, Kulik, Stepina, & Ambrose, 1986), and Job Satisfaction, Skill…”

Section: Preliminary Research Stagementioning

confidence: 99%

The psychological impact of agency worker utilisation

Toms

Biggs

2014

Employee Relations

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Purpose – Agency work represents a unique form of employment that has received increased attention in recent years. Supporters of the agency employment industry have cited increased accessibility and flexibility at an individual and organisational level, yet critics have highlighted disparities in treatment and the limited protection afforded by the contract. Previous psychological studies into the working experiences of these employees have forwarded a series of findings that have frequently conflicted, so this paper begins by exploring research into the areas of motive, job satisfaction, job security, and organisational support. The purpose of this paper is to better understand how this form of employment can psychologically affect agency workers by focusing upon these key areas. Design/methodology/approach – The study's research design incorporated 25 semi-structured interviews with agency workers, recruitment consultants, and representatives from third-party employers. These interviews were then supplemented by longitudinal data from follow-up interviews conducted with agency workers from the initial sample. During the study, the researcher undertook a number of agency working assignments, and ethnographic analysis of diary extracts represented a third source of data. Findings – Results highlighted the importance of motive, as it was found to influence how agency workers viewed their employment. The lack of obligation in temporary contracts was perceived to lead to isolation from permanent colleagues, increase vulnerability, and reduce job security and organisational commitment. Research limitations/implications – Findings strongly supported the claim that the pre-assignment motives of individuals had a significant impact upon their resulting experiences. Agency workers employed in longer-term assignments reported greater integration into the organisation, resulting in increased commitment towards the third-party employer, and improved relationships with permanent staff. Originality/value – The current research incorporated multiple perspectives to create an increased understanding of the agency employment industry and its impact upon individuals.

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“…Although much of this vast literature has focused on psychological attributes other than pay (e.g., perceived well-being and assessments of one's physique), it is clear that this theory is applicable to compensation research (e.g., Oldham, Kulik, Stepina, & Ambrose, 1986).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Keeping up with the Joneses: A field study of the relationships among upward, lateral, and downward comparisons and pay level satisfaction.

Harris

Anseel

Lievens

2008

Journal of Applied Psychology

116

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The authors examined the relationship between the direction of pay comparisons and pay level satisfaction. They hypothesized that upward pay comparisons would significantly predict pay level satisfaction, even when controlling for other comparisons. Results reported in 2 samples (U.S. sample, N ϭ 295; Belgian sample, N ϭ 67) generally supported this hypothesis. Analyses showed that individuals who were paid much less than their upward pay comparison were dissatisfied with their pay level. The highest levels of pay level satisfaction were observed when actual pay was congruent with the upward comparison pay level. There was also evidence that individuals who were paid much more than their upward pay comparison were dissatisfied with their pay level. However, the negative effects of overreward on pay satisfaction were considerably smaller than were those of underreward.

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Relations Between Situational Factors and the Comparative Referents Used by Employees

Cited by 68 publications

References 10 publications

Women's and Men's Career Referents: How Gender Composition and Comparison Level Shape Career Expectations

Women's and Men's Career Referents: How Gender Composition and Comparison Level Shape Career Expectations

The psychological impact of agency worker utilisation

Keeping up with the Joneses: A field study of the relationships among upward, lateral, and downward comparisons and pay level satisfaction.

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