Relating through Oppression: Longitudinal Relations between Parental Racial Socialization, School Racial Climate, Oppressed Minority Ideology, and Empathy in Black Male Adolescents’ Prosocial Development

Abstract

This research explored whether Black male adolescents’ (N = 453; Mage = 13.72, SD = 1.33) perceptions of parental racial socialization (i.e., behavioral racial socialization) and school racial climate (i.e., equitable school racial climate) were associated with prosocial outcomes (i.e., prosocial behaviors and positive relations with others) across three waves of adolescence. This study also explored whether youth’s beliefs about the extent to which Black individuals and other marginalized communities are united by experiences of oppression (i.e., oppressed minority ideology) and empathy mediated these associations. Structural equation modeling indicated that parental behavioral racial socialization at Wave 1 and positive relations with others at Wave 3 were positively linked through youth’s oppressed minority ideology and empathy at Wave 2. Thus, Black male adolescents who relate to other marginalized communities through a shared experience of oppression and feel empathy towards others’ lives possess skills that translate their lessons about race and racism into positive relations with others.

The Role of the Family for Racism and Xenophobia in Childhood and Adolescence

“…One longitudinal study of Black adolescents found that perceived parental racial socialization (a combination of racial pride and preparation for bias) at 10th grade (on average 16 years old) predicted increases in adolescents’ beliefs at 12th grade about the academic achievement gap as resulting from structural challenges rather than innate capabilities (Bañales et al, 2020). With the same sample, they also found that parents’ higher frequency of engaging in racial socialization activities was positively related to Black male adolescents’ willingness to be in solidarity with other ethnic minority groups and take collective actions against discrimination after 1 year (Bañales et al, 2021). The findings show the potential of parental ethnic–racial socialization to contribute to adolescents’ resistance against structural inequities.…”

Showing Up: A Theoretical Model of Anti‐Racist Identity and Action for Latinx Youth

“…A critical analysis of racism is predicated on youth’s racism awareness, or the ability to recognize race‐related phenomena, issues, or disparities in society, the country, and the world (Hope et al., 2015; Rowley et al., 2008). Racism operates on interpersonal, cultural, institutional, and structural levels (Jones, 1983; Neblett, 2019), and youth may learn to recognize these levels of racism throughout adolescence (Bañales, Aldana, et al., 2021, Bañales, Lozada, et al., 2021; Constante et al., 2021; Richards‐Schuster & Aldana, 2013). Interpersonal racism involves people’s endorsement of stereotypes, prejudice, and involvement in verbal and physical forms of racial discrimination (Bonilla‐Silva, 2017; Jones, 1997; Tatum, 2017).…”

Ethnic-Racial Identity as a Source of Resilience and Resistance in the Context of Racism and Xenophobia

“…This suggests that youth who adopt a sense of a minoritized identity may see their experiences of oppression as linked with other similarly marginalized groups raising their awareness of systemic inequality and fueling their desire to address these inequities. A recent study of Black male adolescents found that those who were able to relate to other marginalized communities through a shared experience of oppression were more likely to feel empathy towards others’ lived experiences, and these feelings served as an indirect pathway to engage in more prosocial behaviors and relate positively with others (Bañales et al, 2021). Collectively, this work highlights the potential for cross-racial coalition building as a response to the shared experiences of racial discrimination groups of color face.…”

“…It seems likely that individuals’ racial or cultural ideologies—that is, beliefs about how people in one’s racial or cultural group should behave and what they should value relative to other groups (Sellers et al, 1998)—may also inform their capacity to disrupt racism, their own or that experienced by others. For instance, having a stronger oppressed minority ideology (i.e., people of different ethnic-racial groups experience and should work together to combat marginalization and discrimination, without necessarily equating those experiences) was associated with greater empathy, and in turn, more prosocial behaviors among Black male youth (Bañales et al, 2021). Although the authors did not examine this, it may be the case that endorsing an oppressed minority ideology may promote cross-racial empathy with other racially marginalized groups as well; this could serve as an important foundation for cross-racial coalition work.…”