Rekindling old friendships in new landscapes: The environment–microbiome–health axis in the realms of landscape research

Abstract

1. Humans are spending less time in biodiverse environments, and according to the Old Friends and Biodiversity hypotheses, this has led to fewer interactions with diverse immunoregulatory micro-organisms or 'old friends'.2. Non-communicable diseases such as asthma and inflammatory bowel disease are on the rise, and the development and progression of these 'modern' diseases may be attributed in part, to the breakdown of this evolutionary relationship between humans and environmental microbiota.3. There is a growing interest in the environment-microbiome-health axis as a mechanism to explain some of the health benefits linked to spending time in nature.4. This may provide a platform for proposing a new, holistic and transdisciplinary approach to public and environmental health.5. The field of landscape research-which combines social and natural sciencesresponds to emerging socioecological issues and can make a significant contribution towards this approach.6. This paper explores innovative, landscape research-based approaches to understanding the complex relationships between the environment, the microbiome and human health. 7. Transdisciplinarity will play an important role moving forward. This forms a major discussion point in this paper, along with future research directions, key research questions and novel concepts supported by recent technological advancements.8. The development of a new field of study-Microbioscape Research as a crossover between microbiome science and landscape research-is also discussed.

Green Prescriptions and Their Co-Benefits: Integrative Strategies for Public and Environmental Health

“…Furthermore, immunodeficiency disorders such as asthma and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) are on the rise [48]. This has been partially attributed to reduced exposure to immunoregulatory microorganisms and other health-inducing biological compounds [49][50][51][52]. Obesity has also increased, resulting in part, from lower levels of outdoor-based physical activity and an increasing intake of ultra-processed foods [53,54].…”

“…Enhancing the diversity of the human microbiome by encouraging interactions with natural environments and their microbial inhabitants (microbiome rewilding) is one such potential route [69]. Building on this theory, microbiome-inspired green infrastructure (MIGI) has recently been proposed as a collective term for the design and management of innovative living urban features that could potentially facilitate the process of microbiome rewilding in towns and cities across the planet [50,51].…”

Walking Ecosystems in Microbiome-Inspired Green Infrastructure: An Ecological Perspective on Enhancing Personal and Planetary Health

“…Building on the microbiome rewilding hypothesis, a term that has recently been proposed is 'microbiome-inspired green infrastructure' (MIGI) [63]. MIGI is a collective term for living, multifunctional green spaces that are designed and manipulated to generate health-inducing microbial interactions (Figure 1).…”

“…For example, understanding how pollution, area, proximity, aspect, and urban physical features such as buildings, roads, and other structures, influence the dynamics of MIGI will be essential. It is also important to extend beyond the domains of localized mechanisms and impacts, and to determine whether interconnected systems of MIGI can "improve the microbial network fragility of larger urban areas such as 'megacities', which have been linked to human diseases" [63,64]. Furthermore, as a prospective ecological and public health intervention, MIGI should be designed to maximize ecological justice and reduce health inequalities; for example, by ensuring equity of access where public land is concerned.…”

“…Nature-based health interventions, also known as 'green prescriptions', are an emerging integrative approach, aimed at addressing noncommunicable diseases and social isolation [63]. Green prescriptions work on the premise that exposure to, and interactions with, natural environments bring variable degrees of health benefits, which can be prescribed and monitored over time [105,106].…”