Rainwater Harvesting for Drinking Water Production: A Sustainable and Cost-Effective Solution in The Netherlands?

Abstract

An increasing number of people want to reduce their environmental footprint by using harvested rainwater as a source for drinking water. Moreover, implementing rainwater harvesting (RWH) enables protection against damage caused by increasing precipitation frequency and intensity, which is predicted for Western Europe. In this study, literature data on rainwater quality were reviewed, and based on Dutch climatological data the usable quantity of rainwater in the Netherlands was calculated. For two specific cases, (1) a densely populated city district and (2) a single house in a rural area, the total costs of ownership (TCO) for decentralized drinking water supply from harvested rainwater was calculated, and a life cycle assessment (LCA) was made. For the single house it was found that costs were very high (€60–€110/m3), and the environmental impact would not decrease. For the city district, costs would be comparable to the present costs of centralized drinking water production and supply, but the environmental benefit is negligible (≤1‰). Furthermore, it was found that the amount of rainwater that can be harvested in the city district only covers about 50% of the demand. It was concluded that the application of rainwater harvesting for drinking water production in the Netherlands is not economically feasible.

The Challenges of Water Management and Governance in Cities

“…Implementing rainwater harvesting could contribute to the protection against damage caused by increasing precipitation frequency and intensity. Hofman-Claris et al [11] calculated the total costs of ownership for decentralised drinking water supply from harvested rainwater. In the Netherlands, the amount of rainwater that can be harvested in the city district only covers about 50% of the demand, and the application of rainwater harvesting for drinking water production is currently not economically feasible.…”

Public Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities for Strategic Sustainable Domestic Water Management. A Case of Iringa Region In Tanzania

“…On the other hand, human development has encouraged heavy metal contamination in water sources in a number of ways, these include (i) fertilizer application in irrigation water that interacts with aquifers or becomes transported downstream where domestic applications are realized, (ii) rainwater harvesting through various roof materials, and (iii) corrosion of metallic-based water supply networks [72]. The Ministry of Water [67] demonstrated the significance of assessing heavy metals due to their increasing impacts on public health [73][74][75]. Similar to other chemical pollutants, heavy metals are bioaccumulated in body tissues and will present their effect at chronic levels [76].…”

The Quality of Stored Rainwater for Washing Purposes

“…The requirements for collected rainwater for washing purposes can be defined using three groups of factors: proper tank size, quality and safety of accumulated rainwater and washing quality based on outcome, results and users' satisfaction ( Figure 2). The quality and pollution of harvested rainwater depends on the environment, location, collection surface and the RWH system [31][32][33][34][35]. For the purposes of this analysis three areas of rainwater contamination have been identified (Figure 3).…”

“…In urban areas, roofs are contaminated with wind-blown dirt including heavy metals and nutrias, lichens and mosses, fungus, fecal droppings from birds and other animals, insects and litter, or fallen organic matter from the surroundings trees pollute the water [36]. Metal roofs are suitable for high quality of harvested rainwater-high temperature and ultraviolet light effectively The quality and pollution of harvested rainwater depends on the environment, location, collection surface and the RWH system [31][32][33][34][35]. For the purposes of this analysis three areas of rainwater contamination have been identified (Figure 3).…”