Racial Discrimination during Adolescence Predicts Mental Health Deterioration in Adulthood: Gender Differences among Blacks

Abstract

BackgroundDespite the existing knowledge regarding the negative mental health consequences of perceived racial discrimination, very few researchers have used a longitudinal design with long-term follow-up periods to explore gender differences in this association over time.ObjectiveThe current longitudinal study aimed to investigate gender differences in predictive role of an increase in perceived racial discrimination during adolescence for mental health deterioration a decade later when they are transitioning to young adulthood.MethodsCurrent study followed 681 Black youths for 18 years from 1994 (mean age 15) to 2012 (mean age 32). All participants spent their adolescence and transition to young adulthood in an economically disadvantaged urban area in the Midwest of the United States. Independent variable was perceived racial discrimination measured in 1999 and 2002. Outcomes were psychological symptoms (anxiety and depression) measured in 1999 and at end of follow-up (2012). Covariates included sociodemographics (age, family structure, and parental employment) measured in 1994. Gender was used to define groups in a multigroup structural equation model to test moderating effects.ResultsMultigroup structural equation modeling showed that among male Black youth, an increase in perceived racial discrimination from age 20 to 23 was predictive for an increase in symptoms of anxiety and depression from age 20 to 32. Among female Black youth, change in perceived racial discrimination did not predict future change in depressive or anxiety symptoms.ConclusionWhile racial discrimination is associated with negative mental health consequences for both genders, male and female Black youth differ in regard to long-term effects of an increase in perceived discrimination on deterioration of psychological symptoms. Black males seem to be more susceptible than Black females to the psychological effects of an increase in racial discrimination over time.

Interaction Between Race and Gender and Effect on Implicit Racial Bias Against Blacks

“…39 Recent experience of discrimination increases risk of smoking among Black men, but not Black women. 63 Similar gender differences in the effects of discrimination are reported for other domains of psychopathology including psychological distress, 37 depressive and anxiety symptoms, 23,24 and major depressive disorder. 61 All these findings collectively suggest that Black males are the most likely victims of discrimination, and a significant proportion of psychopathology in Black males can be attributed to discrimination.…”

“…23,[36][37][38][39] In a short cohort, an increase in discrimination was associated with a subsequent increase in depression of male but not female Blacks, 23 a finding which could be replicated over longer periods. 24 All this evidence suggests that exposure and vulnerability to perceived discrimination are not solely a function of race or gender but their intersection. 25,36,37,39 This phenomenon may be due to the subordinate male target hypothesis, 40 masculinity ideologies, 41 or traditional gender norms.…”

“…41 Most of the research on race by gender differences in bias is focused on explicit, rather than implicit bias. 42 While explicit bias results in mental and behavioral health problems, 23,24,43 there is a need to study factors that shape social patterning of implicit bias as well, which influences a wide range of domains such as interaction and quality of health care. [29][30][31][32] The current study was conducted to test race by gender differences in implicit bias against Blacks.…”

“…20 Finally, discrimination may increase highrisk behaviors; for example, overt discrimination may result in social isolation and unhealthy behaviors. 5,22 Perceived discrimination increases risk of depression, 23 anxiety, 24 suicide, 25 and substance use. [26][27][28] Implicit bias also influences Blacks' opportunity for employment, education, and health care.…”

History of Non-Fatal Physical Assault Is Associated with Premature Mortality for Whites but Not Blacks

“…Stronger effects of low education [17], unemployment [12], poor neighborhood quality [11], depression [16,18,19,62,63], hostility and anger [64], low sense of self efficacy [14], and low perception of control over life [65] were shown for Whites than Blacks.…”