Questioning Skills Demonstrated by Approved Clinical Instructors During Clinical Field Experiences

Abstract

Context: The current trend in athletic training clinical education places greater emphasis on the quality of interactions occurring between Approved Clinical Instructors (ACIs) and athletic training students (ATSs). Among other attributes, the ability of ACIs to facilitate and direct quality clinical learning experiences may be influenced by the skill with which the ACI is able to use selected teaching strategies.Objective: To gain insight into ACIs' use of questioning as a specific teaching strategy during the clinical education experiences of undergraduate ATSs.Design: Qualitative case study design involving initial and stimulated-recall interviews, prolonged field observations, and audio recording of ACI-ATS interactions.Setting: The primary athletic training facility at one athletic training education program accredited by the Commission on Accreditation of Athletic Training Education.Patients or Other Participants: The 8 ACI participants included 3 full-time athletic training education program faculty members and 5 graduate-level assistants. The 24 ATS participants included 1 senior, 17 juniors, and 6 sophomores.Data Collection and Analysis: Transcribed data collected from 8 initial interviews, 23 field observations, 23 audio-recorded ACI-ATS interactions and 54 stimulated-recall interviews were analyzed through microscopic, open, and axial coding, as well as coding for process. The cognition level of questions posed by ACIs was analyzed according to Sellappah and colleagues' Question Classification Framework.Results: The ACI participants posed 712 questions during the 23 observation periods. Of the total questions, 70.37% were classified as low-level cognitive questions and 17.00% as high-level cognitive questions. The remaining 12.64% were classified as other.Conclusions: Although all ACIs used questioning during clinical instruction, 2 distinct questioning patterns were identified: strategic questioning and nonstrategic questioning. The way ACIs sequenced questions (their questioning pattern) appeared to be more important than the number of specific cognitive-level questions posed. Nonstrategic questioning appears to support knowledge and comprehension, whereas strategic questioning appears to support critical thinking.

Using Case Studies and Videotaped Vignettes to Facilitate the Development of Critical Thinking Skills in New Graduate Nurses

“…These findings were similar to results reported by Barnum (2008) and Sellappah, Hussey, Blackmore, and McMurray (1998). Sellappah et al (1998) which allow individuals to demonstrate critical thinking and decision making skills (Jeffries & Rogers, 2007).…”

“…Questioning is another educational strategy that facilitates the development of critical thinking skills (Barnum, 2008;Boswell, 2006;Messacar, 2007;Phillips & Duke, 2001;Simpson & Courtney, 2002). Questioning helps new graduate nurses learn how to transfer theoretical knowledge into applied knowledge experience (Messacar, 2007).…”

“…One of these is the cognitive domain, which emphasizes intellectual outcomes. Questions can be further divided into categories that are arranged progressively from the lowest level of thinking, simple recall, to the highest, creating new idea (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001;Barnum, 2008;Boswell, 2006). Questions can also be viewed as concrete, abstract, or creative.…”

“…To make this teaching strategy effective, faculty and preceptors need to carefully plan the questions they wish to incorporate into their teaching (Boswell, 2006;Messecar, 2007). Barnum (2008) focused on a total of 712 questions posed between instructors and students during 23 observation periods. She identified the use of two distinct questioning patterns, nonstrategic and strategic questioning.…”

“…Additional questions then targeted higher-level cognitive processes suitable for the students' academic knowledge and skill levels. These questions supported students in developing a process for thinking that allowed them to critically examine the situation (Barnum, 2008). An important conclusion from Barnum's study was that the majority of questions posed by the instructors (70.37%) were classified as nonstrategic, which target lower-level cognitive processing skills, and only 17% were classified as strategic cognitive questions.…”