Public health and carrageenan regulation: a review and analysis

Abstract

Publisher's copyright statement:The original publication is available at www.springerlink.com Additional information: Use policyThe full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that:• a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in DRO • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders.Please consult the full DRO policy for further details. AbstractThe status of carrageenan in the regulatory sphere influences how and where it may be used, with implications for seaweed farmers, carrageenan manufacturers and consumers. Over the period 1935 to the present the status of carrageenan has been effected by changes in the regulatory environment that reflect new understandings about carrageenan, health and health risks as well as broader trade, social and political changes. This paper reviews regulatory progress from the 1930s to the present. It reflects, in particular, the shifting priorities in public health and their effects on the regulatory status of carrageenan. Four case studies of public controversies about carrageenan safety are discussed in relation to regulatory responses and their public health significance. It is concluded that current assessments of risk associated with carrageenan have, in some contexts, failed to take into account the full spectrum of safety assessments that have been carried out and the maturing of food additive regulations thereby allowing a myth of risk to continue.

Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding

“…It is fair to say that algal polysaccharides are the most widely, and often unknowingly, consumed food of algal origin. Small amounts are incorporated into beverages, meat and dairy products, and fillers (Cofrades et al 2008; Gupta and Abu-Ghannam 2011a, b; Griffin 2015) at levels generally deemed to be beneficial and safe by regulatory agencies (extensively reviewed in Mabeau and Fleurence 1993; MacArtain et al 2007; Watson 2008; Holdt and Kraan 2011; Barlow et al 2015; Fleurence and Levine 2016). …”

“…Carrageenan extracts generate proinflammatory agents in mice (Hansra et al 2000), and the resulting public health concerns have led to several actions regarding carrageenans in food products (Watson 2008). Carrageenan is prohibited in the EU for use in infant formulas, and, although it is permitted in the USA, it must be of high molecular mass (i.e., >100 kDa with <5 % of 50 kDa fragments).…”

“…Carrageenan is prohibited in the EU for use in infant formulas, and, although it is permitted in the USA, it must be of high molecular mass (i.e., >100 kDa with <5 % of 50 kDa fragments). High doses of low molecular mass carrageenan cause ulceration in the guinea pig colon (Watson 2008) and lead to marked increases in the chemokine interleukin-8 and B-cell CLL/lymphoma 10 activities in the normal human colonic mucosal epithelial NCM460 cell line (Bhattacharyya et al 2010). Oral introduction of undegraded λ-κ carrageenan in drinking water of 12-week-old mice also caused significantly higher peak glucose levels in the blood, leading to concern that carrageenan-induced insulin resistance might contribute to human diabetes (Bhattacharyya et al 2012).…”

Meta‐analysis of the human gut microbiome from urbanized and pre‐agricultural populations

“…Furthermore, Hadza and Matses populations contain on average a lower number of pathways involved in alginate (−98.68%), carrageenan (−100.00%) and gellan (−77.62%) degradation, as compared with urban populations. Alginate, carrageenan and gellan gum are three polysaccharides, which are derived from algae or bacteria, and which are widely used in the food industry as stabilizers, thickeners or emulsifying agents (Brownlee et al ., ; Burges Watson, ; Prajapati et al ., ).…”

Digestive fate of dietary carrageenan: Evidence of interference with digestive proteolysis and disruption of gut epithelial function

“…This study focuses on carrageenan (CGN), a family of high molecular weight, linear, sulphated galactans derived from marine algae, which is an approved and widely used food additive (classified GRAS by the FDA and denoted E‐407 by EFSA) . There are three key commercial CGN types termed κ‐, ι‐ and λ‐CGN, which mainly differ in the degree of repeating unit sulphation (1, 2 or 3 sulphate groups, respectively) as well as technological properties such as solubility and gel strength .…”