Provenance and production technology of late medieval ‘Besztercebánya/Banská Bystrica–type’ high-quality stove tiles

Abstract

A unique collection of high-quality late medieval (fifteenth–sixteenth century) glazed and unglazed stove tiles from the northern part of the Carpathian Basin is of great interest to archaeologists and art historians. It is yet to be determined if these products, which are characterised by similar features, were produced in a single workshop, perhaps in Besztercebánya/Banská Bystrica (in present-day Slovakia), or in several workshops throughout the region. The first systematic multi-analytical investigation was carried out on the ceramic body and glaze of one hundred and seventeen tile fragments from six sites (Besztercebánya/Banská Bystrica, Fülek/Fiľakovo, and Csábrág/Čabraď in Slovakia; Salgó, Eger, and Szécsény in Hungary) using polarising microscopy, X-ray diffraction, electron microprobe, and Raman microspectroscopy analyses to determine the raw materials and production techniques used. Based on the petrographic characteristics, phase and chemical composition of the ceramic body, and the chemical composition and colourants of the glazes, the stove tiles can be classified into three primary groups. Tiles from different sites are different to each other, only the tiles from the Hungarian sites and from Fülek/Fiľakovo are similar. Thus, it is probable that the tiles were produced in several (at least three) workshops in the region from where they were then dispersed. The technological knowledge of the master(s) producing the polychrome Csábrág/Čabraď tiles with tin-opacified glazes was higher than that of the master(s) producing the other tiles. However, the exact location of the workshops as well as their existence through time is still in unknown.

Comparison of rapid preparation methods for Pb isotope analysis of high‐Pb ceramic glazes: A case study of late medieval Besztercebánya/Banská Bystrica‐type stove tiles

“…The Pb isotope data of the two tiles from Eger (group 2: green and yellow glaze of E_1, green glaze of E_10 tile) are similar to the Pb isotope data of the Triassic Bleiberg‐type Pb‐Zn ore deposits in the Eastern Alps (Köppel & Schroll, 1985; Schroll et al, 2006) (Figs 2b and 3) (see also Table S12 in the additional supporting information), potentially indicating Pb import from Austria and the use of Austrian Pb for production of some of the tile glazes. The different origins of the Pb used for the group 2 glazes are in accordance with their technological differences that were demonstrated by Györkös et al (2020). Although the designs of these two tiles from Eger are similar to those of other Hungarian and Fülek/Fiľakovo tiles, their glazes differ in the use of colourants (Pb antimonate in the yellow glaze of E_1 tile instead of iron and Pb‐Sn antimonate in the green glaze of E_10 tile, in addition to the copper colourant; Györkös et al, 2020).…”

“…A total of 15 stove tiles (22 glaze samples) were investigated with all three preparation methods (see Tables S4–S6 in the additional supporting information). The Pb oxide content of the glazes of the investigated tiles varied between 45 and 71 wt% based on scanning electron microscopy with energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectrometry (SEM‐EDX) measurements (Györkös, 2022; Györkös et al, 2020) (see Table S1 in the additional supporting information).…”

“…In the last few decades, several archaeological and art historical studies have investigated the connections between these tiles, characterized by similar circumstantial motifs and illustrated topics, along with the number and location of the possible production workshops (Anderko, 2023; Bodnár, 1988; Cserey, 1974; Gruia, 2007; Hoššo, 2005; Jančiová, 2020; Kvietok & Mácelová, 2013; László, 2012; Mácelová, 2005, 2006, 2009; Mezei, 2013, 2016; Mordovin, 2015; Parádi, 1984; Rakonczay, 2018, 2020). These studies were recently complemented by systematic archaeometric research to determine the raw materials and production technology of the ceramic body, as well as of the glaze of the stove tiles found at various archaeological sites, using a multi‐analytical methodology (Györkös, 2022; Györkös et al, 2018, 2019, 2020). Based on the similarities and differences in the applied materials and production technology, the investigated tiles from seven sites were classified into three groups: (1) tiles from Besztercebánya/Banská Bystrica (Slovakia); (2) tiles from Eger, Salgó, Szécsény (northern Hungary) and Fülek/Fiľakovo (Slovakia); and (3) tiles from the castle of Csábrág/Čabraď and the monastery of Ipolyság/Šahy (Slovakia).…”

“…Based on the similarities and differences in the applied materials and production technology, the investigated tiles from seven sites were classified into three groups: (1) tiles from Besztercebánya/Banská Bystrica (Slovakia); (2) tiles from Eger, Salgó, Szécsény (northern Hungary) and Fülek/Fiľakovo (Slovakia); and (3) tiles from the castle of Csábrág/Čabraď and the monastery of Ipolyság/Šahy (Slovakia). Thus, the stove tiles were produced in at least three different workshops in the region, from where they were distributed to customers (Györkös, 2022, Györkös et al, 2018, 2019, 2020). (Note that names of the localities are shown in Hungarian and Slovakian, and in some cases in German in this article, as these three languages were the prevailing languages in the region for centuries.…”

Pigments—Lead-based whites, reds, yellows and oranges and their alteration phases

“…Considering all these attestations, the period of use of Naples yellow expands from the beginning of the 16 th century to, at least, the 19 th century (see also Clark et al 1995;Maggetti et al 2009;Chiarantini et al 2015;Yuryeva et al 2018;Györkös et al, 2020). However, the reconstruction that admitted a complete replacement of lead-tin yellow pigments by Naples yellow at the beginning of the 18 th century (Laurenze and Riederer 1982;Lahlil et al 2011) does not seems completely valid in paintings and was largely undermined by the state-of-the-art of the studies.…”