“…Studies suggest that there are two main channels for identifying these effects. The first channel is direct, and includes family reunification (Brunner and Pate, 2016), the negative effects on the school attendance of children leftbehind (Amuedo-Dorantes and Pozo, 2010), and a brain drain (Croix and Docquier, 2012;Ngoma and Ismail, 2013). The second channel is indirect, insofar as migrants interact with households left-behind by means of remittances.…”