Programmed versus face-to-face counseling.

Abstract

Interviews under four conditions were conducted with men students planning to enter the University of Illinois. Under normal-1 condition, 96 students were interviewed by experienced counselors using their normal style; under normal-2 condition, 97 students were interviewed by the same counselors after these counselors had participated in writing a Self-Counseling Manual (presumably a learning experience for the counselors); under a programed counseling condition, 104 students read a branching Self-Counseling Manual; and under a simulated programed counseling condition, 95 students were interviewed by counselors who followed closely the text of the Self-counseling Manual. Before and after the interview the students answered questions about vocational plans; major; estimates of abilities, interests, and probable academic achievement; and expected problem areas. Following the interview they indicated which problem areas had been discussed and how helpful the interview had been. At the end of the first semester the students completed another questionnaire covering college major and estimated abilities and interests. Comparisons among the responses of the students in the four treatment groups showed that although the students preferred the normal counseling, they also reacted favorably to the programed counseling. More problems were covered under programed counseling, but the students believed more help was received under normal counseling. Flexibility was greater under normal counseling. Appropriate changes in estimates of ability, interests, and probable achievement were seen to have occurred under all forms of counseling between pre-and post-counseling testing and between pre-counseling testing and responses given at the end of the semester. Changes were as great, or greater, under programed counseling than under normal counseling. These findings suggest that programed counseling may be useful either in place of or in addition to normal counseling.-University of Illinois.

Evaluating the effectiveness of career interventions.

“…Most of the other studies reviewed in this category have compared structured approaches other than computer programs with traditional face-to-face individual counseling. Avallone (1974), Gilbert and Ewing (1971), Graff, Danish, and Austin (1972), and Krivatsy and Magoon (1976) have all found that programmed materials were equally as good as or superior to individual face-to-face counseling for clients' improvements in appraising themselves and making career choices. The only exception is Nolan's (1974) comparison of the SDS and group counseling with soon-to-be discharged military personnel; group counseling led to more participant information seeking, but no significant differences in realism were attributable to the two treatments.…”

Increasing information-seeking behavior with a model-reinforced videotape.

“…Doepke (1974) and Simpson (1975) have noted the increased use of career information centers and the use of multimedia materials in career development services. Research by Gilbert and Ewing (1971) and Graff, Danish, and Austin (1972) suggests that some parts of the vocational counseling process can be done as well or better by mechanical or self-help programs. Graff, Raque, and Danish (1974) have urged continued evaluative research on media-based and noncounselor mediated interventions.…”

Vocational-educational counseling practices: A survey of university counseling centers.

“…Less than a quarter of the centers had vocational classes offered through academic departments or employed audiovisual or computer technology. Recent research (Gilbert & Ewing, 1971;Graff, Danish, & Austin, 1972;Holland et al, 1972;Norman, 1969) suggests that educational-vocational counseling or certain portions of the counseling process could be handled as efficiently or more efficiently by mechanical or self-help devices. If automated procedures facilitate the vocational counseling process, then counselors and counselors in training need to be familiar with self-instructive and computerized methods.…”