Production of potent polyvalent antivenom against three elapid venoms using a low dose, low volume, multi-site immunization protocol

Venom and Antivenom of the Redback Spider (<i>Latrodectus hasseltii</i>) in Japan. Part II. Experimental Production of Equine Antivenom against the Redback Spider

“…Various horse immunization methods reported globally have been inherited and have evolved into unique procedures at antivenom manufacturing sites in each country, based on researcher' experience with each type of immunizing antigen (e.g., snake venom, bacterial toxin). The World Health Organization (WHO) and other researchers have reported various methods for horse immunization with snake venom, but no consensus has yet been reached (16)(17)(18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23). Furthermore, very limited information is available describing the immunization of mammals with spider venom, and the relevant information on redback spider venom was found in only a single report by Wiener in 1961 (12).…”

Snakebite Envenoming: A Public Health Perspective

“…Alternatives are being explored aimed at formulating liquid antivenoms stable at room temperature (Rodrigues-Silva et al, 1999;Segura et al, 2009). Likewise, the design of immunization protocols based on multi-site injection of small volumes containing low amounts of venom has resulted in higher neutralizing titers with very little damage to the immunized animals (Chotwiwatthanakun et al, 2001). Furthermore, the search for novel adjuvants is a relevant task in the efforts to improve antivenom antibody titers (Gutiérrez et al, 2011a).…”

Snake antivenoms: adverse reactions and production technology

“…The utilization of more specific antibodies reduces the amount of total protein injected into the patient, thereby reducing the probability of anaphylactic shock, so that improvements in immunization schedules and procedures are important to obtain plasma with higher activity per protein unit (specific activity) (24,26,27). Several groups have been seeking alternative methods to prepare toxoids through venom detoxification, which would maintain its immunogenicity and minimize the damage to serum-producing animals (28,29).…”