“…Other risk factors include certain personality characteristics such as poor self-control, neurocognitive deficits including hyperactivity problems and learning disabilities (with boys at greater risk for these than girls), child conduct/behavior problems, associating with delinquent peers, family factors and stresses such as living in a non-intact family/single parent household, parent loss, having a teen parent (Elkins et al, 1997;Henry et al, 1996;Krueger et al, 1994;Messer, Goodman, Rowe, Meltzer, & Maughan, 2006;Murray, Irving, Farrington, Colman, Bloxsom, 2010;Trzesniewski et al, 2006;Wright, Caspi, Moffitt, & Silva, 1999) and having a parent with a criminal history 2 (e.g., Chesney-Lind, 1997; Johnston, 1991;Kates, Gerber, & Casey, 2014;Messer et al, 2006;Mumola, 2000;Myers et al, 1999;Wasserman, 2000;Wilson & Howell, 1993). Studies similarly suggest that the main predictors of incarceration for males include the early background experiences of poverty, ethnic minority status, low maternal education/ unemployment, dysfunctional parenting (e.g., abusive, neglectful), growing up in a father-absent household, residential instability, early behavioral/conduct problems (including adolescent delinquency), poor academic ability and low educational attainment (including poor literacy and dropping out of high school), unemployment, and drug and alcohol abuse (e.g., Bailey & Hayes, 2006;Drakeford, 2002;Harper & McLanahan, 2004;Ou & Reynolds, 2010;Rogers-Adkinson et al, 2008;Rumbaut, 2005;Satterfield et al, 2007;Sourander et al, 2006;West, Denton, & Germano-Hausken, 2000;Wildeman & Western, 2010).…”