Primates in peril: the significance of Brazil, Madagascar, Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of the Congo for global primate conservation

Abstract

Primates occur in 90 countries, but four—Brazil, Madagascar, Indonesia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)—harbor 65% of the world’s primate species (439) and 60% of these primates are Threatened, Endangered, or Critically Endangered (IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017-3). Considering their importance for global primate conservation, we examine the anthropogenic pressures each country is facing that place their primate populations at risk. Habitat loss and fragmentation are main threats to primates in Brazil, Madagascar, and Indonesia. However, in DRC hunting for the commercial bushmeat trade is the primary threat. Encroachment on primate habitats driven by local and global market demands for food and non-food commodities hunting, illegal trade, the proliferation of invasive species, and human and domestic-animal borne infectious diseases cause habitat loss, population declines, and extirpation. Modeling agricultural expansion in the 21st century for the four countries under a worst-case-scenario, showed a primate range contraction of 78% for Brazil, 72% for Indonesia, 62% for Madagascar, and 32% for DRC. These pressures unfold in the context of expanding human populations with low levels of development. Weak governance across these four countries may limit effective primate conservation planning. We examine landscape and local approaches to effective primate conservation policies and assess the distribution of protected areas and primates in each country. Primates in Brazil and Madagascar have 38% of their range inside protected areas, 17% in Indonesia and 14% in DRC, suggesting that the great majority of primate populations remain vulnerable. We list the key challenges faced by the four countries to avert primate extinctions now and in the future. In the short term, effective law enforcement to stop illegal hunting and illegal forest destruction is absolutely key. Long-term success can only be achieved by focusing local and global public awareness, and actively engaging with international organizations, multinational businesses and consumer nations to reduce unsustainable demands on the environment. Finally, the four primate range countries need to ensure that integrated, sustainable land-use planning for economic development includes the maintenance of biodiversity and intact, functional natural ecosystems.

The species dilemma and its potential impact on enforcing wildlife trade laws

“…Through increased awareness and continued discussion, we hope to bridge the gap between alpha taxonomy and its applied use in a forensic context. Many primate species face staggering challenges to their survival . It is therefore imperative that academic and applied researchers work together when possible to help reduce some of these threats.…”

“…Unfortunately, one conservation implication is often overlooked: the effect that changing taxonomy has on enforcing laws aimed at protecting wildlife. Importantly, this issue applies to a broad range of taxonomic groups, but primates are exemplary for (a) having a large number of species newly recognized in recent years (e.g., between 1996 and 2016, the number of primate species increased from ~230 to ~500) and (b) experiencing large population declines due to hunting for the wildlife trade . In discussing this issue, our goal is not to argue in favor of one species concept over another, nor is to express our opinions about whether certain taxonomic changes are warranted.…”

High density of white‐faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus) and habitat quality in the Taboga Forest of Costa Rica

“…The majority of non‐human primates (hereafter, “primates”) across the globe are either under threat of extinction or experiencing population declines (Estrada et al, 2018). Primate densities tend to decrease in unprotected areas, yet primates can nevertheless still flourish in areas of human activity, suggesting both a vulnerability and resilience to anthropogenic disturbance (Cavada, Barelli, Ciolli, & Rovero, 2016).…”

Illegal Trade of Wild-Captured Lemur catta within Madagascar

“…Approximately 60% of all nonhuman primate species are threatened with extinction [Graham et al, 2016;Estrada et al, 2017Estrada et al, , 2018. Primate species decline and local extirpation are attributed to anthropogenic pressures on primates (bushmeat hunting, capture for biomedical experimentation, exotic pet trade) and their habitats (extractive industries and agriculture), along with anthropogenic disease transmission (e.g., Ebola) and climate change [Estrada et al, 2017[Estrada et al, , 2018Kalbitzer and Chapman, 2018].…”

“…Primate species decline and local extirpation are attributed to anthropogenic pressures on primates (bushmeat hunting, capture for biomedical experimentation, exotic pet trade) and their habitats (extractive industries and agriculture), along with anthropogenic disease transmission (e.g., Ebola) and climate change [Estrada et al, 2017[Estrada et al, , 2018Kalbitzer and Chapman, 2018]. Since human-induced pressures are likely to continue in future, the conservation status of primates remains precarious, although primate experts are hopeful that these trends can be reversed [Estrada et al, 2017[Estrada et al, , 2018Chapman et al, 2018].…”