Prevalence of myopia and associated risk factors among primary students in Chongqing: multilevel modeling

Abstract

Background: The prevalence of myopia and associated risk factors among children in Chongqing has not yet been determined. This study investigated the prevalence of myopia and possible relationships between myopia and several related factors among school children in Chongqing. Methods: This cross-sectional study assessed a sample of 997 children (7-13 years of age) attending primary school in Chongqing. Data were obtained from visual acuity and refractive error measurements and a structured questionnaire. Myopia was defined as visual acuity < 5.0 and refractive error (spherical equivalent) of < − 0.50 diopters (D) in either eye. Multilevel modeling was applied to investigate potential risk factors. Results: The overall prevalence of myopia was 33.9% [95% confidence interval (CI) = 31.0-36.8]; myopia prevalence significantly increased with age. Girls were at a higher risk of myopia than boys [odds ratio (OR) = 1.449, 95% CI = 1.060-1.979]. Children with paternal myopia (OR = 2.130, 95% CI = 1.376-3.297) or maternal myopia (OR = 1.861, 95% CI =1.153-3.002) had a higher risk of myopia than those without myopic parents. Children who spent more than 1 h daily outdoors were less likely to have myopia; meanwhile, children who did homework more than 3 h daily (OR = 2.237, 95% CI = 1.041-4.804), watched television more than 3 h daily (OR = 2.106, 95% CI = 1.200-3.697), or played electronics more than 1 h daily (OR = 2.983, 95% CI = 2.088-4.262) had a higher risk of myopia. Conclusions: Myopia in school children is a serious public health problem in Chongqing. Myopia was significantly positively associated with higher age, female sex, parental myopia, and spending a long time indoors; notably, playing with electronics had the greatest influence on the risk of myopia.

&nbsp;Prevalence of Myopia in 3–14-Year-Old Chinese Children: A School-Based Cross-Sectional Study in Chengdu

“…This nding is consistent with ours because children in grade 5 are close to 9 years old [14]. In regard to myopia severity, the prevalence of low myopia was the highest and that of high myopia was the lowest, which is consistent with Xie's ndings [12]. In addition, the prevalence of low myopia in the girls was higher than that in the boys, but the prevalence of moderate myopia and high myopia was similar between the girls and boys.…”

“…Therefore, myopia is of great concern, especially in East Asia. While the prevalence of myopia among children in some large cities in China has been reported [9][10][11][12], the prevalence of myopia among children in Chengdu has not been determined, even though Chengdu is an important central city in Western China. Children usually develop myopia at the age of 6 [13], so myopic prevention and control is needed in younger children.…”

Stability of Ophthalmic Atropine Solutions for Child Myopia Control

“…Overall, it has been estimated that currently 1.4 billion people in the world are myopic (22.9% of the population), and crude estimations suggest that, by 2050, there will be 4.7 billion people affected (nearly 50% of world population) [ 1 ]. The prevalence of myopia is variable between countries, affecting for example about 30% of young adults in Europe [ 2 ], 59% in North America [ 3 ], to more than 95% in some student populations of Asian countries [ 4 , 5 ], with onset of the disease occurring during childhood and adolescence. Many risk factors have been suggested or clearly identified, such as time spent performing close-vision activities, such as reading or looking at smart-device screens [ 6 ], lack of physical exercise, or exposure to sunlight [ 3 , 7 ], often all linked to higher education rates [ 8 ].…”

Early Age of the First Myopic Spectacle Prescription, as an Indicator of Early Onset of Myopia, Is a Risk Factor for High Myopia in Adulthood

“…The prevalence of myopia is increasing globally and is particularly high in East Asian countries. A recent study showed that myopia prevalence was significantly and positively associated with higher age, female sex, parental myopia, and spending significant time indoors; in particular, playing with electronics carried the greatest risk [ 25 ]. Our study aimed to retrospectively review the possible risk factors of high myopia and found that an earlier onset of myopia was an important risk factor.…”