Prevalence and Relative Risk of Cronobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes Associated with the Body Surfaces and Guts of Individual Filth Flies

178

107

human pathogens, the proof for direct transmission of antibiotic resistance is difficult to provide. In this review, we make a case that insects commonly associated with food animals likely represent a direct and important link between animal farms and urban communities for antibiotic resistance traits. Houseflies and cockroaches have been shown to carry multidrug-resistant clonal lineages of bacteria identical to those found in animal manure. Furthermore, several studies have demonstrated proliferation of bacteria and horizontal transfer of resistance genes in the insect digestive tract as well as transmission of resistant bacteria by insects to new substrates. We propose that insect management should be an integral part of pre-and postharvest food safety strategies to minimize spread of zoonotic pathogens and antibiotic resistance traits from animal farms. Furthermore, the insect link between the agricultural and urban environment presents an additional argument for adopting prudent use of antibiotics in the food animal industry.

Section: Antibiotic Resistance and Insectsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Insects Represent a Link between Food Animal Farms and the Urban Environment for Antibiotic Resistance Traits

Zurek

Ghosh

2014

178

107

“…Cronobacter spp. are ubiquitous in nature and have been isolated from clinical, environmental, and food sources, most notably powdered infant formula and other dried foods (2,3), and, more recently, from surfaces and intestinal tracts of wild filth flies (4). The Cronobacter genus consists of seven species, C. condimenti, C. dublinensis, C. malonaticus, C. muytjensii, C. sakazakii, C. turicensis, and C. universalis (5,6).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Multiplex PCR Assay Targeting a Diguanylate Cyclase-Encoding Gene, cgcA , To Differentiate Species within the Genus Cronobacter

Carter

Lindsey

Grim

et al. 2013

“…They move between feces and carcasses and food meant for human consumption. Bacteria acquired from filth can be transmitted to food, either via the fly exterior, e.g., body surface and mouth parts, or with feces and vomit that is produced during feeding (18)(19)(20)(21)(22)(23). In an experimental setting, flies were shown to transmit Campylobacter between chickens (24), and several studies have demonstrated similar pathogenic E. coli and Klebsiella strains on flies and in humans in hospital settings, as well as in small rural communities, suggesting their potential as transmission vehicles (25)(26)(27).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Detection of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL)-Producing Escherichia coli on Flies at Poultry Farms

Blaak

Hamidjaja

Hoek

et al. 2014

106

In the Netherlands, extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli bacteria are highly prevalent in poultry, and chicken meat has been implicated as a source of ESBL-producing E. coli present in the human population. The current study describes the isolation of ESBL-producing E. coli from house flies and blow flies caught at two poultry farms, offering a potential alternative route of transmission of ESBL-producing E. coli from poultry to humans. Overall, 87 flies were analyzed in 19 pools. ESBL-producing E. coli bacteria were detected in two fly pools (10.5%): a pool of three blow flies from a broiler farm and a pool of eight house flies from a laying-hen farm. From each positive fly pool, six isolates were characterized and compared with isolates obtained from manure (n ‫؍‬ 53) sampled at both farms and rinse water (n ‫؍‬ 10) from the broiler farm. Among six fly isolates from the broiler farm, four different types were detected with respect to phylogenetic group, sequence type (ST), and ESBL genotype: A 0 /ST3519/SHV-12, A 1 /ST10/SHV-12, A 1 /ST58/SHV-12, and B1/ST448/CTX-M-1. These types, as well as six additional types, were also present in manure and/or rinse water at the same farm. At the laying-hen farm, all fly and manure isolates were identical, carrying bla TEM-52 in an A 1 /ST48 genetic background. The data imply that flies acquire ESBL-producing E. coli at poultry farms, warranting further evaluation of the contribution of flies to dissemination of ESBL-producing E. coli in the community. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae are increasing in prevalence worldwide (1, 2). ESBLs confer resistance to most beta-lactam antibiotics, including 3rd-and 4th-generation cephalosporins, which severely limits treatment possibilities for infections caused by these bacteria. Often, options for treatment are further restricted by the multiresistant nature of ESBL-producing bacteria, which has led to increased use of, and increasing prevalence of Enterobacteriaceae resistant to, last-resort antibiotics, such as carbapenems (3). Although initially ESBL production was mainly observed in hospital infections caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae, today it is also frequently associated with community-acquired infections, mostly urinary tract infections caused by Escherichia coli (4, 5), as well as commensal E. coli strains isolated from humans and food-producing animals (6-8).Not only can dissemination of ESBL-producing E. coli in the community be facilitated by direct contact with human or animal carriers, but also, the presence of the bacterium in environmental compartments, such as surface water (9-12) and wildlife (13), suggests that the environment should also be considered in this regard. In the Netherlands, ESBL-producing E. coli is highly prevalent in poultry: in 2009, ESBL-producing (and/or AmpC-producing) E. coli bacteria were detected on 100% (n ϭ 26) of Dutch broiler farms studied (14). Because of the high prevalence of ESBL-producing E. coli on Dutch retail chick...