Prequestioning and Pretesting Effects: a Review of Empirical Research, Theoretical Perspectives, and Implications for Educational Practice

Abstract

Testing students on information that they do not know might seem like a fruitless endeavor. After all, why give anyone a test that they are guaranteed to fail because they have not yet learned the material? Remarkably, a growing body of research indicates that such testing—formally known as prequestioning or pretesting—can benefit learning if there is an opportunity to study the correct answers afterwards. This prequestioning effect or pretesting effect has been successfully demonstrated with a variety of learning materials, despite many erroneous responses being generated on initial tests, and in conjunction with text materials, videos, lectures, and/or correct answer feedback. In this review, we summarize the emerging evidence for prequestioning and pretesting effects on memory and transfer of learning. Uses of pre-instruction testing in the classroom, theoretical explanations, and other considerations are addressed. The evidence to date indicates that prequestioning and pretesting can often enhance learning, but the extent of that enhancement may vary due to differences in procedure or how learning is assessed. The underlying cognitive mechanisms, which can be represented by a three-stage framework, appear to involve test-induced changes in subsequent learning behaviors and possibly other processes. Further research is needed to clarify moderating factors, theoretical issues, and best practices for educational applications.

Examining the impact of time management and resilience training on work-family conflict among Iranian female nurses: a randomized controlled trial

“…The control group’s average scores for work role interference with personal and family life and family dissatisfaction domains were lower in the post-test and follow-up than in the pre-test, with a slight increase in the follow-up. This could be attributed to a pre-test effect, where awareness of WFC areas prompted control group participants to take initial actions [ 45 ].…”

Pan, Dunlosky, Xu, & Ouwehand (2024) Emerging and Future Directions in Test-Enhanced Learning Research

“…Overall, the preponderance of evidence to date suggests that test-enhanced learning in the form of retrieval practice is highly beneficial for learning, subsequent test performance, and for the other factors mentioned above. Consistent with that observation, several expert reviews have concluded that retrieval practice is one of the most effective learning strategies (e.g., Carpenter et al, 2022;Dunlosky et al, 2013;Pashler et al, 2007; see also Carpenter, 2023, McDaniel, 2023, Murphy et al, 2023, Pan & Carpenter, 2023and Yang et al, 2023 in this special issue), with the capacity to enhance learning for different age groups, for a wide range of learning materials, and in diverse learning contexts. Largely owing to a lack of evidence, however, a strong consensus has yet to emerge with respect to other forms of practice testing (Pashler et al, 2007; see also Dunlosky et al, 2013).…”

A Comparison of Pre- or Post- Retrieval Testing Strategies and their Relation to Emotions and Motivation in a Higher Education Setting

“…The most common approach in these studies is that learners are provided with new content first and then are tested about this new content afterwards (i.e., post-testing). However, an increasing body of studies shows that being tested before learning new content, if you are presented with the correct response afterwards, can also be similarly beneficial (Pan & Carpenter, 2023). However, very little is known about whether pre-or post-testing is the more beneficial testing approach and which additional variables moderate these effects.…”