Predicting Use of Non-Lethal Force in a Mid-Size Police Department: A Longitudinal Analysis of the Influence of Subject and Situational Variables

Leinfelt, Fredrik H.

doi:10.1350/pojo.2005.78.4.285

Cited by 16 publications

(16 citation statements)

References 14 publications

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“…The table shows that resisting arrest is relatively rare—around 15 percent of respondents engaged in some form of resistance. This frequency is similar to what is reported in studies based on police records and observational data; they report frequencies between 12 percent and 18 percent (Crawford and Burns 2002; Engel 2003; Garner et al 1995; Leinfelt 2005; U.S. Department of Justice 2012).…”

Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 87%

Are Suspects Who Resist Arrest Defiant, Desperate, or Disoriented?

Whichard

Felson

2016

Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency

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Objectives: We examine three reasons why suspects resist arrest: (1) defiance of police authority by suspects from lower-status groups, (2) risky decisions resulting from aversion to sure losses, and (3) impairment due to mental illness and substance use. Methods: We use nationally representative survey data from about 17,000 state and federal inmates who were asked whether they resisted arrest when they committed the crime that led to their incarceration. Results: Suspects’ resistance is unrelated to their race/ethnicity, education, or unemployment. On the other hand, suspects are more resistant when they are carrying contraband (e.g., illegal weapons, drugs, stolen property) or are under community supervision (i.e., parolees, probationers, or escapees). Resistance is also positively related to mental illness, illicit drug use, and alcohol intoxication. Conclusions: Our results do not support the idea that resistance is an expression of defiance from lower-status suspects. They are consistent with prospect theory, which argues that decision makers become risk-seeking, when the alternative is to accept a sure loss. Our results suggest that resistant suspects are best understood as either desperate or disoriented decision makers.

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Section: Resultssupporting

confidence: 87%

Are Suspects Who Resist Arrest Defiant, Desperate, or Disoriented?

Whichard

Felson

2016

Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency

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“…This finding has also been found to be an important predictor of police use of force elsewhere (e.g. Leinfelt, 2005;Hall, 1997;McEwen, 1996;Terrill and Mastrofski, 2002;Worden, 1995). Clearly, such an effect is readily evident in the present inquiry as seen in the odds ratio outcome of the logistic regression model, which is an advantage of estimating this model as opposed to sole reliance on an ordinal regression model as suggested by Terrill and Mastrofski (2002).…”

Section: Situational Influences On Force Severitymentioning

confidence: 60%

Examining police use of force: a smaller agency perspective

Terrill

Leinfelt

Kwak

2008

Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies &Amp; Management

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Purpose -This research seeks to examine police use of force from a smaller police agency perspective in comparison with what is known from previous research using data from larger-scale agencies. Design/methodology/approach -Using police use of force reports involving arrests (n ¼ 3,264) over a three-year period (2002)(2003)(2004)) from a small police agency located in the upper-Midwest, this study utilizes descriptive and multivariate analyses to examine how and why officers use force. Findings -While officers resorted to physical force (beyond handcuffing) in 18 percent of the arrest encounters, the majority of force is located at the lower end of the force continuum (e.g. soft hand control). However, unlike officer behavior, much of the resistant behavior displayed by suspects is toward the upper end of the spectrum (e.g. defensive/active). The results also indicate that the most powerful predictor of force is the presence and level of suspect resistance presented to officers. These findings are placed within the context of prior work. Research limitations/implications -Since the current study relies on official data from a single police agency, the findings come with caution in terms of generalizability. Originality/value -This study contributes to the literature on police use of force by examining everyday force usage in a small police department.

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“…This is presently a difficult endeavor, given the lack of structure wherein police departments measure use of force (Hickman et al., 2008). Other research using methods analogous to the force factor have come to similar conclusions about the issue of suspect resistance relative to police use of force, as well as the importance of reliability in coding reports (Leinfelt, 2005; Lersch, Bazley, Mieczkowski, & Childs, 2008; Terrill, Leinfelt,& Kwak, 2008).…”

Section: Literature Reviewmentioning

confidence: 81%

Reliability of the Force Factor Method in Police Use-of-Force Research

Hickman

Atherley²,

Lowery

et al. 2015

Police Quarterly

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The force factor method has garnered much attention and application in police use-of-force research, but the reliability of the method has yet to be intensively studied. Using official reports from the Seattle Police Department during a two-and-a-quarter-year period (n = 1,240), officer–suspect interactions were coded from the content of report narratives. Static force factors compared the maximum force applied by the officer with the maximum level of suspect resistance. Dynamic force factors were also recorded, including up to 10 iterations of dyadic action/reaction coded using the same coding scheme. The coding of force factors was completed independently by two teams working at different institutions in a fully crossed design. Evidence on the interrater reliability and subsequent utility of force factors is presented and discussed. Results indicate acceptable levels of agreement across coding teams and support the use of force factors as a central tool for studying asymmetrical social encounters and the proportionality of force.

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Predicting Use of Non-Lethal Force in a Mid-Size Police Department: A Longitudinal Analysis of the Influence of Subject and Situational Variables

Cited by 16 publications

References 14 publications

Are Suspects Who Resist Arrest Defiant, Desperate, or Disoriented?

Are Suspects Who Resist Arrest Defiant, Desperate, or Disoriented?

Examining police use of force: a smaller agency perspective

Reliability of the Force Factor Method in Police Use-of-Force Research

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