A General Theory of Crime has sparked a great deal of theoretical debate and empirical investigation. Tests of the theory have focused on measuring the core element, the latent trait of self-control. The majority of this research has used the 24-item scale developed by Grasmick et al. (1993), and a great deal of attention has been directed at the validity of this scale. Empirical debate revolves around the unidimensionality of the scale as established using conventional factor analytic techniques [exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA)]. In this paper, we provide the first application of an item response theory (IRT) Rasch model to the validation of the Grasmick et al. scale. IRT models focus on the interaction between the human subject and survey items, and the extent to which cumulative scales fail to provide fundamental measurement. Our results suggest that although conventional factor analyses yield results similar to those previously reported, IR T analysis reveals that one's level of self-control influences self-report responses, a finding consistent with Hirschi and Gottfredson. One of the most influential theoretical developments of the past decade is Gottfredson and Hirschi's (1990) A General Theory of Crime.Their theory has attracted much attention, with a growing body of literature spanning both critiques (Akers, 1991; Barlow, 1991; Polk, 1991; Reed and *We would like to thank the three reviewers for their valuable suggestions. A portion of this paper was written when the first two authors were Fellows participating in the "Violence Over the Life Course" Institute at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences at Stanford University in the Summer of 1998. CRIMINOLOGY VOLUME 38 NUMBER 3 2000 897 ~~ 1. Since the focus of this paper concerns measurement issues associated with selfcontrol, we forego a detailed review of Gottfredson and Hirschi's (19%) theory.

Classic statements of control theory propose that individuals who are controlled or bonded will be more likely to be deterred from deviance, while those who are not controlled or bonded will be more likely to turn to deviance. In a recent restatement of control theory, Tittle (1995) offers an alternative viewpoint. Though he agrees that a lack of control (a control deficit) can lead to repressive forms of deviance (predation, defiance, and submission), Tittle also asserts that overcontrol (a control surplus) may lead to autonomous types of deviance (exploitation, plunder, and decadence). Terming it control balance theory, Tittle argues that the amount of control to which one is subject relative to the amount of control one can exercise (i.e., the control ratio) affects not only the probability that one will engage in a deviant act, but also the specific form or type of deviance. I n this article, we focus on one of the key hypotheses of control balance theory: an individual's control balance ratio predicts deviant behavior. W e examine this hypothesis using two vignettes designed to investigate the repressive acts of predation and defiance. Segmented, nonlinear regression results yield mixed evidence in that both control surpluses and control deficits significantly predict predation and defiance. The theoretical implications of our results for control balance theory are discussed.In Control Balance, Tittle (1995) presented a general theory that was designed to account for all forms of deviance. Largely built as an integrated theory of crime that borrows concepts from multiple theories, control balance, in essence, holds that the amount of control to which one is subject relative to the amount of control one can exercise determines the probability of deviance occurring as well as the type of deviance likely to occur (Tittle, 1995:135). Guided by the position that control is a central

Minority representation among police personnel, relative to the communities they serve, has long been advanced as an explanatory factor for the prevalence of negative police—public interactions as well as police agency responsiveness to public concerns, particularly with regard to the use of force. But minority representation has rarely been studied empirically and on a large scale. The present study examined minority representation and additional organizational, administrative, and environmental correlates of citizen complaints about police use of force in 496 large municipal police departments. Data were drawn from the 2003 Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) survey administered by the Bureau of Justice Statistics. Results indicate that (a) rates of force complaints were higher among agencies having greater spatial differentiation, internal affairs units, and higher violent crime rates; (b) the percentage of complaints sustained was higher among agencies characterized by greater formalization and lower where collective bargaining was authorized for officers; and (c) minority representation was unrelated to complaint rates nor to the percentage of complaints sustained. Implications for the policing literature as well as future refinements for the LEMAS survey are discussed.