Posttraumatic and Acute Stress Responses in Hostages Held by Suicide Terrorists in the Takeover of a Moscow Theater.

Abstract

In October 2002 armed suicide terrorists held over 800 theatergoers hostage for three days. The standoff ended when Russian Special Forces gassed and stormed the theater. The terrorists were killed and hostages were dragged to buses that took them to hospitals where unprepared doctors struggled to revive them. 130 hostages died: 125 from the gas, only five directly from the terrorists’ actions. An American author collaborated with colleagues from the Russian Academy of Sciences shortly after the event to study acute psychological responses of the hostages. This paper reports on posttraumatic and acute responses following the event in eleven hostages and makes recommendations for short-term interventions following such an ordeal.

Models of Psychopathology

“…In addition, Jameson ( 2010 ) argued that Stockholm syndrome "has little basis in contemporary authorized psychological knowledge" (p. 339), and Namnyak and colleagues noted that Stockholm syndrome does not exist in any of the formal diagnostic classifi cation systems, such as the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM-IV-TR ; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2000 ). Nevertheless, what little empirical research that does exist has generally supported academic theoretical depictions of the phenomenon (e.g., Auerbach, Kiesler, Strentz, Schmidt, & Serio, 1994 ;, and fi ndings have confi rmed the presence of Stockholm syndrome in some hostages post-captivity (e.g., Favaro, Degortes, Colombo, & Santonastaso, 2000 ;Speckhard, Tarabrina, Krasnov, & Mufel, 2005a, 2005bWesselius & DeSarno, 1983 ).…”

“…The complexity of Stockholm syndrome requires a theoretical framework that attends to both intra-and interpersonal processes and that does so in a way that accounts for the depth of distress, confusion, and pain associated with situations of traumatic entrapment (Speckhard et al, 2005b ).…”

“…In other words, self-pity and self-acceptance-that is, the reactive and intentional perpetuation of the deadly DT-are both adaptive coping strategies under conditions of traumatic entrapment (see Jameson, 2010 ). Despite the negative consequences associated with traumatic entrapment Speckhard et al, 2005aSpeckhard et al, , 2005b, Stockholm syndrome appears to be a functional adaptation to life-threatening, fear-inducing situations (Strentz, 1980 ).…”

“…Clinical work with victims of traumatic entrapment initially involves reconciling three controversial issues regarding Stockholm syndrome: (a) the lack of clarity and consensus concerning Stockholm syndrome as a diagnostic classifi cation (Namnyak et al, 2008 ); (b) the absence of Stockholm syndrome as a construct in the mainstream psychology literature (Jameson, 2010 ), perhaps most notably the clinical literature; and (c) the apparent reluctance of hostages to seek help post-captivity (Speckhard et al, 2005b ;Wesselius & DeSarno, 1983 ). The latter issue may be the result of continued use of avoidance strategies (Auerbach et al, 1994 ) that were employed effectively during the siege.…”

Mental health outcomes of Mexico’s drug war in Ciudad Juárez: A pilot study among university students.

“…The study represents one of the first analyses of trauma in the ongoing Mexican “drug war,” a conflict that has produced more than 50,000 homicides since 2008 with more than 5,000 civilians who have simply disappeared. It is challenging to conduct research on an ongoing armed conflict such as Mexico’s drug war, partly because of security concerns and also because of the lack of immediately available research funding (Speckhard, Tarabrina, Krasnov, & Mufel, 2005). Disaster research, and trauma research in connection with ongoing conflict, is a “moving target” (F.…”