Post-traumatic stress disorder amongst children aged 8–18 affected by the 2011 northern-Namibia floods

Abstract

Extreme flooding in the northern parts of Namibia occurred in 2011, impacting many school-going children in the region. The rationale for the current research is to assess post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on school children as a result of the floods. A self-administered Child Trauma Screening Questionnaire (CTSQ) with closed-ended questions was administered to 480 children between the ages of eight and 18 years at their respective schools. The CTSQ consists of five items assessing re-experiencing and five items assessing hyper-arousal symptoms. The results show that 55.2% of learners aged 12 and below and 72.8% of learners aged 13 and above reported experiencing symptoms of trauma from the floods 2 years after the event. These percentages were quite high and are therefore a cause for concern. Given the magnitude of this problem, it is important for the government and other stakeholders to provide the necessary psychological and/or emotional support in the event of future floods or similar disasters.

Effects of extreme weather events on child mood and behavior

“…Notably, the affected region, its residents, and schools had not fully recovered from previous floods in 2008 and 2009, which is likely to have compounded the mental health effect. 33 A similar result was observed in rural Australian adolescents subject to prolonged drought. 32 Specifically, adolescents who were evaluated several years after the drought began reported higher levels of emotional distress compared to individuals who were evaluated more proximal to the onset of the event.…”

“…While social support, parental presence during the disaster, and exposure level are relatively well studied and appear to be strongly linked to child mental health outcomes, the role of most other variables is somewhat inconclusive because of mixed or limited evidence. Regarding the persistence of psychological symptoms, there is ample evidence – across EWE type – that long‐term mental health effects are a possibility in the aftermath of an EWE 33–35 . However, recovery is highly individualized and influenced by numerous factors including resiliency, 7 level and type of social support, 47 degree of personal loss, 52 and chronicity of the event 32 .…”

“…The 2011 floods in Namibia are illustrative, as the majority of children in a study population of 480 reported symptoms of trauma 2 years later. Notably, the affected region, its residents, and schools had not fully recovered from previous floods in 2008 and 2009, which is likely to have compounded the mental health effect 33 …”

“…Multiple studies have demonstrated the potential for longterm behavioral and mental health effects in children exposed to EWEs, and these effects have been observed across disaster types. 29,[32][33][34][35] The 2011 floods in Namibia are illustrative, as the majority of children in a study population of 480 reported symptoms of trauma 2 years later. Notably, the affected region, its residents, and schools had not fully recovered from previous floods in 2008 and 2009, which is likely to have compounded the mental health effect.…”

On considering climate resilience in urban water security: A review of the vulnerability of the urban poor in sub‐Saharan Africa

“…Moreover, the destructive effects of floods on children go beyond visible health problems. The study of urban schools in Namibia has revealed that even 2 years after a flood, more than a half of children experienced symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (55.2% of 8–12 olds and 72.8% of 13–18 olds) (Taukeni, Chitiyo, Chitiyo, Asino, & Shipena, ). Evidence from rural Bangladesh has highlighted that children will also suffer from increased domestic violence during and after floods (Biswas, Rahman, Mashreky, Rahman, & Dalal, ) but there is currently no evidence for this in the African context.…”