Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) in Surface Soils across Five Asian Countries: Levels, Spatial Distribution, and Source Contribution

Abstract

A total of 23 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners were measured in soil samples collected in areas with no known point source [urban/rural/background (U/R/B) sites] and in areas with known point source [brominated flame retardant (BFR)-related industrial sites (F sites) and e-waste recycling sites (E sites)] across five Asian countries. The highest PBDE concentrations were found in BFR-related industrial and e-waste recycling sites. The concentrations of PBDEs in U/R/B sites decreased in the following order: urban > rural > background sites. Total PBDE concentrations were dominated by BDE-209, while BDE-17, -85, -138, -191, -204, and -205 were the least abundant compounds. In both urban sites and rural sites, the mean concentrations of total PBDEs (∑BDEs) in soils decreased in the following order: Japan > China > South Korea > India > Vietnam. The concentrations of PBDEs in soils were comparable with those reported in other studies. Among the three commercial PBDE mixtures, relatively large contributions of commercial penta-BDE were observed in Vietnam, whereas deca-BDE was the dominant form in mixtures contributing from 55.8 ± 2.5 to 100.0 ± 1.2% of the total PBDEs in soils collected from other four countries. Regression analysis suggested that local population density (PD) is a good indicator of PBDEs in soils of each country. Significant and positive correlation between soil organic content and PBDE level was observed in Chinese soil for most nondeca-BDE homologues with their usage stopped 10 years ago, indicating its important role in controlling the revolatilization of PBDEs from soil and changing the spatial trend of PBDE in soil from the primary distribution pattern to the secondary distribution pattern, especially when primary emission is ceased.

Hydrophobic Organic Pollutants in Soils and Dusts at Electronic Waste Recycling Sites: Occurrence and Possible Impacts of Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers

“…Predominance of BDE-209 in samples is probably due to the fact that the deca-BDE mixture is the predominant PBDE still in use [20,50]. This is in agreement with the results of previous studies in Turkey [51], in five Asian countries [52], in Vietnam by Matsukami et al, (2017) [45], in Ghana by Akortia et al, (2017) [44], and in Nigeria and China [53]. This is similar to the findings of Takigami et al [54] showing the highest concentrations of PBDEs (BDE-209) in dust from e-waste sites.…”

Re-volatilisation of soil accumulated pollutants triggered by the summer monsoon in India

“…Relatively low pollution levels in soils (0.07-0.11 ng g -1 for  4 HCH, 0.18-0.43 ng g -1 for  6 DDX, 0.25-0.28 ng g -1 for  7 PCB, and 8.1-12.7 pg g -1 for  9 PBDEs) confirm the classification as "background" site (Table 1). Actually, these HCH and DDX levels are lower than ever reported from soils in India, which previously ranged 1.6-835 for HCH (excluding hot spots; Sharma et al, 2014), 14-934 ng g -1 for DDX (Sharma et al, 2014), and 30 (0-149) pg g -1 (rural sites, same congeners; Li et al, 2016). The soil sample from a tea plantation showed elevated levels of DDT and its metabolites (27.9 ng g -1  6 DDX), pointing to previous application (Table S2).…”

Revisiting flexible polyurethane foam flammability in furniture and bedding in the United States

“…[40][41][42] This is to be expected since the fibers/components used in the barrier fabric will determine the smol- There are numerous papers showing that small molecule flame retardants can and do enter the environment both by migration out of consumer goods as well as industrial waste processes. [74][75][76] Therefore, small molecule flame retardants, especially those which act as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and have negative persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity (PBT) issues are problems and correctly, their use has been banned. Numerous laws in the United States and EU are now in place banning use of these chemicals which have negative PBT profiles, 77-81 and the main chemical manufacturers of these chemicals have ceased production of them, although there appear to be new smaller Chinese chemical companies which still produce these banned materials.…”

“…The second problem is due to chemical contamination of the environment. There are numerous papers showing that small molecule flame retardants can and do enter the environment both by migration out of consumer goods as well as industrial waste processes 74‐76 . Therefore, small molecule flame retardants, especially those which act as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and have negative persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity (PBT) issues are problems and correctly, their use has been banned.…”