Polar herbicides, pharmaceutical products, perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and nonylphenol and its carboxylates and ethoxylates in surface and tap waters around Lake Maggiore in Northern Italy

Abstract

A survey of contamination of surface and drinking waters around Lake Maggiore in Northern Italy with polar anthropogenic environmental pollutants has been conducted. The target analytes were polar herbicides, pharmaceuticals (including antibiotics), steroid estrogens, perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (including perfluorooctanoate PFOA), nonylphenol and its carboxylates and ethoxylates (NPEO surfactants), and triclosan, a bactericide used in personal-care products. Analysis of water samples was performed by solid-phase extraction (SPE) then liquid chromatography-triple-quadrupole (tandem) mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS). By extraction of 1-L water samples and concentration of the extract to 100 microL, method detection limits (MDLs) as low as 0.05-0.1 ng L(-1) were achieved for most compounds. Lake-water samples from seven different locations in the Southern part of Lake Maggiore and eleven samples from different tributary rivers and creeks were investigated. Rain water was also analyzed to investigate atmospheric input of the contaminants. Compounds regularly detected at very low concentrations in the lake water included: caffeine (max. concentration 124 ng L(-1)), the herbicides terbutylazine (7 ng L(-1)), atrazine (5 ng L(-1)), simazine (16 ng L(-1)), diuron (11 ng L(-1)), and atrazine-desethyl (11 ng L(-1)), the pharmaceuticals carbamazepine (9 ng L(-1)), sulfamethoxazole (10 ng L(-1)), gemfibrozil (1.7 ng L(-1)), and benzafibrate (1.2 ng L(-1)), the surfactant metabolite nonylphenol (15 ng L(-1)), its carboxylates (NPE(1)C 120 ng L(-1), NPE(2)C 7 ng L(-1), NPE(3)C 15 ng L(-1)) and ethoxylates (NPE( n )Os, n = 3-17; 300 ng L(-1)), perfluorinated surfactants (PFOS 9 ng L(-1), PFOA 3 ng L(-1)), and estrone (0.4 ng L(-1)). Levels of these compounds in drinking water produced from Lake Maggiore were almost identical with those found in the lake itself, revealing the poor performance of sand filtration and chlorination applied by the local waterworks.

Survey of two perfluorinated organic compounds (PFOA and PFHxA) in water and biota surrounding a polyfluorinated chemical plant

“…The PFHxA concentrations were also undetectable or low in all surface water samples (< 1.0-3.7 ng/l). The surface water concentrations reported here are on the low end of those reported in other coastal and fresh waters (Kallenborn et al 2004, Yamashita et al 2005, Tanaka et al 2006, Skutlarek et al 2006, deVoogt et al 2006, Weremiuk et al 2006, Loos et al 2007.…”

“…PFCs are suspected to be carcinogenic and may also act as endocrine disruptors (White et al 2011). In an effort to better understand the environmental and organismal impacts of such compounds, many studies have assessed contamination in water supplies (Post et al 2009), wastewater treatment plants Guo 2010), and a wide variety of environmental samples including fresh and marine waters (Kallenborn et al 2004, Yamashita et al 2005, Tanaka et al 2006, Skutlarek et al 2006, deVoogt et al 2006, Weremiuk et al 2006, Loos et al 2007, stormwater (Murakami et al 2009a, Xiao et al 2011, Nguyen et al 2011, groundwaters (Shultz et al 2004, Murakami et al 2009b and biota ranging from small invertebrates (vanLeeuwen et al 2006, Gulkowska et al 2006, Nakata et al 2006) to large mammals in a wide variety of habitats (Giesy and Kannan 2001). Few studies have examined a wide variety of sample types (municipal waters, natural waters and biota) collected within and near a single manufacturing plant.…”

Perfluorooctane sulphonate and perfluorooctanoic acid in drinking and environmental waters

“…The study of Lake Maggiore in Italy gave similar very low levels of PFOS (3 ng l −1 ) and PFOA (9 ng l −1 ) in both lake and drinking water and the authors concluded that the treatment (slow sand filtration and chlorination) was ineffective in removing these chemicals (Loos et al 2007).…”

“…Drinking water concentrations were reported to be very similar, and the authors concluded that the removal systems of sand filtration and chlorination were inefficient at removing PFOS and PFOA. Lake Maggiore receives municipal, industrial and agricultural discharges (Loos et al 2007). Loos et al (2008) monitored selected stretches of the River Po and its major tributaries for PFCs.…”

Ecotoxicological aspects related to the presence of pharmaceuticals in the aquatic environment

“…Wide dissemination at low concentrations mainly in the aquatic environment is evident today. Such concentrations have been detected in aquatic compartments such as influents [14][15][16] and effluents [17][18][19] from sewage treatment plants (STPs), surface waters (rivers, lakes, streams, estuaries, among others) [20][21][22][23][24], seawater [25], groundwater [26][27][28] and drinking water [29][30][31][32]. The scientific community is in broad agreement with the possibility that adverse effects may arise from the presence of pharmaceu-ticals not only for human health but also for aquatic organisms.…”