“…16,17 Following this work, membrane and particle type sensors that rely on an ion exchange between the target ion and an optical reporter were developed further. [18][19][20][21][22] Emulsified (nanoparticle-type) optical sensors have been of particular interest as they allow: assay miniaturization (to the cellular scale 23,24 ), integration of automated liquid handling, and significantly reduced equilibrium times. Unfortunately, nanoparticle-based polyion sensors for reliable measurement in blood, plasma and serum have not yet been successful.…”