Plasmonic Biosensors for the Detection of Lung Cancer Biomarkers: A Review

Abstract

Lung cancer is the most common and deadliest cancer type globally. Its early diagnosis can guarantee a five-year survival rate. Unfortunately, application of the available diagnosis methods such as computed tomography, chest radiograph, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, low-dose CT scan, bone scans, positron emission tomography (PET), and biopsy is hindered due to one or more problems, such as phenotypic properties of tumours that prevent early detection, invasiveness, expensiveness, and time consumption. Detection of lung cancer biomarkers using a biosensor is reported to solve the problems. Among biosensors, optical biosensors attract greater attention due to being ultra-sensitive, free from electromagnetic interference, capable of wide dynamic range detection, free from the requirement of a reference electrode, free from electrical hazards, highly stable, capable of multiplexing detection, and having the potential for more information content than electrical transducers. Inspired by promising features of plasmonic sensors, including surface plasmon resonance (SPR), localised surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), and surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) such as ultra-sensitivity, single particle/molecular level detection capability, multiplexing capability, photostability, real-time measurement, label-free measurement, room temperature operation, naked-eye readability, and the ease of miniaturisation without sophisticated sensor chip fabrication and instrumentation, numerous plasmonic sensors for the detection of lung cancer biomarkers have been investigated. In this review, the principle plasmonic sensor is explained. In addition, novel strategies and modifications adopted for the detection of lung cancer biomarkers such as miRNA, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), cytokeratins, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using plasmonic sensors are also reported. Furthermore, the challenges and prospects of the plasmonic biosensors for the detection of lung cancer biomarkers are highlighted.

Recent Trends in SERS-Based Plasmonic Sensors for Disease Diagnostics, Biomolecules Detection, and Machine Learning Techniques

“…Recently, there has been an increase in using plasmonic biosensing for cancer diagnosis and therapy, with review articles summarizing the progress in the same [ 80 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 ]. They are established to be minimally invasive, rapid, low cost, and offer point-of-care testing [ 87 , 88 ]. Of all plasmonic-based detection techniques, SERS is being extensively used for cancer identification, monitoring, and other theranostics, including imaging and chemo/photothermal therapy [ 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 , 96 ].…”

Au Nanoparticle-Based Integrated Microfluidic Plasmonic Chips for the Detection of Carcinoembryonic Antigen in Human Serum

“…This characteristic can be used to prepare LSPR sensors for biological and chemical detection. LSPR biosensors can detect low-concentration cancer markers and provide a reference for auxiliary diagnosis, condition monitoring, and efficacy evaluation. − The LSPR sensor based on Au NPs has been used to realize the rapid detection of low-concentration AFP, CEA, and other cancer markers. − Recently, Lee et al developed a multiplex cancer marker biosensor by immobilizing chemically synthesized plasmonic nanoparticles . Aćimović et al demonstrated a nanoplasmonic biosensor of Au nanorods with eight independent microfluidic channels by the standard electron beam lithography (EBL)–reactive ion etching (RIE) process to achieve 50% human serum cancer marker detection .…”

One-Step and Real-Time Detection of microRNA-21 in Human Samples for Lung Cancer Biosensing Diagnosis

“…Nowadays, the techniques for LC diagnosis rely on imaging methodologies like chest radiography, contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT), and positron emission tomography. These techniques show low sensitivity, are costly, and imply radiation generation . In addition, they are only useful when the tumor is visible enough.…”

“…Clinical diagnosis based on detecting biomarkers such as proteins or genetic material in body fluids such as urine, saliva, or blood is boosting the cancer diagnosis. The biomolecular analysis enables the identification of a cancerous development even in the early stages, before tumor presence, by employing a noninvasive and inexpensive method permitting rapid medical treatment and increasing the cancer survival rate. To diagnose LC, a large list of different biomarkers has been described such as proteins (i.e., NSE, CEA, and CYFR A-21), epigenetic events like DNA methylation (CDO1 gene, ZNF177 gene), DNA mutations (K-RAS gene, PTEN gene), or circulating microRNAs (microRNA-21-5p, microRNA-205-5p, and microRNA-210-3p) among others .…”

“…These techniques show low sensitivity, are costly, and imply radiation generation. 5 In addition, they are only useful when the tumor is visible enough. For optimizing the diagnosis and treatment, they should be combined with other molecular techniques such as cytology samples and small biopsies.…”