“…food web modules). For instance, plant-pollinator interactions may become more or less frequent (Irwin, Warren, Carper, & Adler, 2014), competitive interactions can be rearranged (Francis & Schindler, 2009), and patterns of parasitism can be altered (Theodorou et al, 2016) by urbanization. More generally, it has been repeatedly demonstrated that high trophic-level species tend to be absent from heavily urbanized environments ( Figure 1; Faeth, Warren, Shochat, & Marussich, 2005;Raupp, Shrewsbury, & Herms, 2010;Start et al, 2018), possibly because of an increased sensitivity of predators to fragmentation (Gravel, Massol, Canard, Mouillot, & Mouquet, 2011).…”