Placing marine protected areas onto the ecosystem-based management seascape

Abstract

The rapid increase in the science and implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs) around the world in the past 15 years is now being followed by similar increases in the science and application of marine ecosystem-based management (EBM). Despite important overlaps and some common goals, these two approaches have remained either separated in the literature and in conservation and management efforts or treated as if they are one and the same. In the cases when connections are acknowledged, there is often little assessment of if or how well MPAs can achieve specific EBM goals. Here we start by critically evaluating commonalities and differences between MPAs and EBM. Next, we use global analyses to show where and how much notake marine reserves can be expected to contribute to EBM goals, specifically by reducing the cumulative impacts of stressors on ocean ecosystems. These analyses revealed large stretches of coastal oceans where reserves can play a major role in reducing cumulative impacts and thus improving overall ocean condition, at the same time highlighting the limitations of marine reserves as a single tool to achieve comprehensive EBM. Ultimately, better synergies between these two burgeoning approaches provide opportunities to greatly benefit ocean health. Although few countries have yet to come close to meeting these goals (1), local and federal governments and conservation organizations around the world have already created or are in the process of creating hundreds of new MPAs. Interest in using MPAs as a conservation strategy is supported in part by a growing body of science showing the conservation benefits from no-take reserves (2, 3), and made more urgent by the increasing recognition of the dire condition of most of the world's oceans (4, 5). Despite the success of these efforts, it is also clear that MPAs are only part of the solution to protecting and restoring ocean health. MPAs cannot address all of the existing and emerging threats to marine systems, most notably landbased sources of pollution and threats from global climate change, nor can they achieve all management goals. MPAs typically support a single societal value-conservation-although they are also commonly established with the aim of benefiting fisheries. There is a growing range of objectives for ocean use and protection that extends beyond conservation and fisheries, and these different perspectives need to be included in management plans. In particular, we need to ensure that human well-being is part of our definition of ocean health if marine conservation is going to be effective in the long term.In response to the increasing diversity and intensity of ocean uses and associated impacts, and the recognition that we need to more carefully and explicitly include human dimensions in our efforts to understand and manage the oceans, there has been a recent push toward ecosystem-based management (EBM) (6-8).Emerging from this development are numerous variations on the EBM theme, including area-based management, ecosystem-based fisher...

From measuring outcomes to providing inputs: Governance, management, and local development for more effective marine protected areas

“…MPAs may not be suitable management interventions in all contexts [106,108]. MPAs cannot protect against all threats to the marine environment [109] and may not be effective for protecting all types of fish stocks-for example, highly migratory species [106].…”

Evolving science of marine reserves: New developments and emerging research frontiers

“…The authors (21) argue that, through an understanding of the target audience, well-crafted main messages, audience-and topic-specific communication tactics, and an iterative evaluation of the impact of communication efforts, science can effectively inform management decision-making processes. Halpern et al (22) examine how marine reserves can be integrated into EBM, a broader approach to sustaining ecosystems services. The authors (22) evaluate the extent to which fishing contributes to declining ocean health in marine ecosystems around the world, indicating where and when marine reserves can play a major role in improving ocean health and thus, in achieving EBM goals.…”

“…Halpern et al (22) examine how marine reserves can be integrated into EBM, a broader approach to sustaining ecosystems services. The authors (22) evaluate the extent to which fishing contributes to declining ocean health in marine ecosystems around the world, indicating where and when marine reserves can play a major role in improving ocean health and thus, in achieving EBM goals. This paper (22) provides an important framework for expanding the global array of reserves to better address the existing and predicted distribution of threats to marine ecosystems.…”

“…The authors (22) evaluate the extent to which fishing contributes to declining ocean health in marine ecosystems around the world, indicating where and when marine reserves can play a major role in improving ocean health and thus, in achieving EBM goals. This paper (22) provides an important framework for expanding the global array of reserves to better address the existing and predicted distribution of threats to marine ecosystems. Finally, Arrieta et al (23) take a unique perspective on marine reserves by addressing the implications of preserving genetic diversity for commercial interests.…”

“…Marine reserves cannot be expected to address all of the threats and human uses faced by ocean ecosystems (22) nor can reserves solve inherent economic inefficiencies associated with failed fisheries management. Even in areas where fishing is the predominant human impact and thus, reserves can serve a central role in achieving ocean health, reserves are likely to be most successful if they are integrated with an EBM approach that also promotes effective management strategies outside reserve borders (22). Fisheries management in the United States and around the world is increasingly looking to incentive-based approaches to ensure efficient, economically viable, and ecologically sustainable fisheries (40-43).…”