Persistent Rise in Demand for Firewood in Bhutan? An Unbalanced Panel Data Analysis 2003-2017

Abstract

Using the large sample household survey conducted in the years 2003, 2007, 2012, and 2017, this study examines the change in firewood consumption due to the adoption of electricity, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), and biogas. This study examines the use of firewood separately for cooking and heating purposes over the study period.Almost all the households in Bhutan are connected to electricity. The rural electrification programme in the last two decades has helped households shift to electricity for lighting and cooking purposes. While we look at the energy use dynamics in Bhutan, the households have shifted their energy use from firewood to more clean energy sources such as electricity, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and biogas for cooking purposes. However, the use of firewood for heating has been persistently increasing over the years. Our two-way fixed effect model suggests that firewood family size, the distance to the distribution point, and the number of cattle the households own also significantly influence firewood consumption.The results from the Focus Group Discussions (FDGs) indicated that the Bhutanese tradition of construction, food, and living in rural areas plays a significant role in maintaining the unwavering demand for firewood.

The presence of wild edible plants and determinants influencing their harvest, consumption, and conservation in south eastern Bhutan

“…This trend corroborates other studies in the region, for example in the northern Indian state of Uttarakhand [86] and in the Chinese region of Tibet [43]. Additionally, our findings match closely with the consumption preference from Bhutan and Nepal [42,88] and are comparable to a study from a reserve park in India [19], i.e., fruit > shoot > leaf.…”

“…The large number of WEPs species (120 from 63 families) reported (Table 1) is reflective of this, due mainly to the favourable subtropical conditions suitable for a diverse range of plant species. A separate study reported 99 species in 55 plant families from Khoma village of the Lhuntse district in north east Bhutan [42]. Similar studies in neighbouring Bangladesh reported 102 WEPs [82], and in Nepal 85 WEPs [2].…”

“…Diverse wild plants consumed in India are also reported to have a range of medicinal uses [3]. In Bhutan, this bi-dimensional use of WEPs is commonly reported, for example by Wangyal [40], Zangpo, Tshering [41], and Dema and Dolkar [42]. A study in Tibetan plateau reported the use of thirtyone WEP species as medicines to treat gastropathy, coughs, fevers, rheumatism, dysentery, fractures, dyspepsia, hemoptysis, and asthma, in addition to their use as special tonics [43].…”

“…Culinary preparations of certain WEPs are often delicacies and are consumed during major festivals [3]. Similarly, WEPs are associated with local festivals, rituals and funerals in Khoma, a village in the Lhuentse district in Bhutan [42]. Likewise, varieties of wild Dioscorea species are harvested and consumed in special preparations during Losar (New Year), Lochoe (an annual ritual) and Prechula (an offering to local deities) in the Kheng region of central Bhutan [28].…”

“…Since it is quite unrealistic to single out any particular harvesting method as sustainable [67], developing agro-techniques for the mass production of WEPs for conservation and for meeting the nutritional and livelihood needs of indigenous communities [3,5,19]. Alarmingly, WEPs are under constant threat from habitat destruction from anthropogenic (livestock grazing, agricultural land expansion and over-exploitation of WEPs) and natural phenomena (forest fire, and climate change), which collectively cause indirect loss of valuable traditional knowledge in Bhutan [42]. Despite this, there is a general lack of understanding about the role WEPs have in food system and the socio-economy of Bhutanese.…”