Perceived Similarity of the Self to Animals, Creativity, and Anxiety—: A Terror Management Analysis

Abstract

According to terror management theory, humans avoid death anxiety by embedding themselves within cultural worldviews that allow them to perceive themselves as more than mortal animals. However, individuals also differ in their trait-like tendency to dissociate from other animals. In six studies, we tested whether individuals who perceive themselves as more similar to animals (high-perceived similarity of the self to animals [PSSA]) invest more in creativity for terror management than low-PSSA individuals, but are also more vulnerable to experiencing anxiety and existential concerns. Supporting our hypotheses, PSSA was associated with investment in creativity and arts, especially after death primes (Studies 3 and 4). High-PSSA individuals had heightened trait anxiety and death-thought accessibility (Studies 5 and 6), and showed increased state anxiety following a negative feedback about their creativity (Study 6). Findings highlight the role of PSSA as a personality variable predicting human motivation and emotion.

Bigotry and the human–animal divide: (Dis)belief in human evolution and bigoted attitudes across different cultures.

“…Our findings are consistent with recent theory and research on PSSA and human-to-human prejudice (e.g., Caviola et al, 2019; Costello & Hodson, 2010; Dhont et al, 2019; Lifshin, Greenberg, et al, 2022). From the perspective of SIT (Brewer, 2007; Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000; Hornsey & Hogg, 2000; Tajfel & Turner, 1986), individuals who believe that humans evolved from animals may have a wider definition of their ingroup identity because they believe that all human beings share the same evolutionary backgrounds.…”

“…This study was a pilot study for a project that aimed to validate stimuli that focused on people’s perceptions of different objects as art or not. In that survey, we also included the four-item measure of belief in human evolution we used in Study 5 (α = .95) and a three-item measure of PSSA (adapted from Lifshin et al, 2021; e.g., “To what extent do you think about yourself in the same way that you think about animals?,” a = .89). Political ideology was also measured with the same items as in Study 5 (α = .93).…”

“…Research within the framework of SIT focuses on the role of common human–animal group identity in fostering more positive and harmonious intergroup relations (e.g., Costello & Hodson, 2010). On the other hand, the TMT perspective highlights the potential role of denial of human creatureliness in explaining why disbelievers in the notion of human evolution might have more negative attitudes toward outgroups and be more racist and prejudiced (Lifshin, Greenberg, et al, 2022). Both of these complementary perspectives suggest that PSSA may link beliefs in the origin of human beings from animals with ingroup identity and attitudes toward outgroups.…”

“…Of particular importance to our current investigation, TMT may explain why people who do not believe that humans evolved from animals might have more negative attitudes toward (members of) outgroups, compared to people who do believe in human evolution from animals. Because cultural worldviews and social identities help people deny their similarity to animals (e.g., Goldenberg et al, 2000; Lifshin, Helm, et al, 2022), studies show that people who are low in PSSA, including those who may not believe that humans have evolved from other animals, also identify more strongly with their sociocultural identities and depend on them more, in order to minimize existential concerns (Lifshin, Greenberg, et al, 2022). As a consequence, people low in PSSA might also display more intergroup bias and prejudice when threats are salient (Lifshin, Greenberg, et al, 2022).…”

“…This body of research suggests that a larger perceived divide between humans and animals—lower perceived similarity of the self to animals (PSSA)—relates to more negative attitudes toward various outgroups (e.g., Amiot & Bastian, 2015; Caviola et al, 2019; Costello & Hodson, 2010; Dhont et al, 2019; Lifshin, Greenberg, et al, 2022). Considering that individuals who believe in the notion that humans developed from animals also tend to have higher levels of PSSA (e.g., Lifshin et al, 2021), such beliefs should relate to less prejudice and negative attitudes toward outgroups. In the current article, we tested this possibility using diverse data sets from nationally representative data of Americans collected by the General Social Survey (GSS; Smith et al, 1972–2018), nationally representative and culturally diverse data collected from the Pew Research Center in 19 Eastern European countries (Pew Research Center, 2016), 25 Muslim countries (Pew Research Center, 2012), and Israel (Pew Research Center, 2015), as well as from online samples with American participants.…”