Pathophysiology of Atherosclerosis

Abstract

Atherosclerosis is the main risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD), which is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Atherosclerosis is initiated by endothelium activation and, followed by a cascade of events (accumulation of lipids, fibrous elements, and calcification), triggers the vessel narrowing and activation of inflammatory pathways. The resultant atheroma plaque, along with these processes, results in cardiovascular complications. This review focuses on the different stages of atherosclerosis development, ranging from endothelial dysfunction to plaque rupture. In addition, the post-transcriptional regulation and modulation of atheroma plaque by microRNAs and lncRNAs, the role of microbiota, and the importance of sex as a crucial risk factor in atherosclerosis are covered here in order to provide a global view of the disease.

Endothelial Dysfunction Induced by Extracellular Neutrophil Traps Plays Important Role in the Occurrence and Treatment of Extracellular Neutrophil Traps-Related Disease

“…CVD is a general term covering a series of ED-related diseases in the circulatory system, which are considered to be the main outcome of ED [ 70 ]. AS is the most typical one of CVD and has a great correlation with ED, which is regarded as a pathological basis of most CVD and a major cause of death worldwide [ 71 , 72 ]. Moreover, it is defined as a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the lipid deposition with hyperplasia of vascular smooth muscle and fibrous matrix, and following AS plaques [ 73 ].…”

“…AS originates from ED with the accumulation and modification of low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) in the intima of blood vessels [ 74 , 75 ]. Subsequently, the modified LDLs, along with pro-inflammatory molecules, facilitate the activation of ECs and the recruitment of monocytes, resulting in local inflammation [ 72 ]. Thus, the activated ECs cause the disturbance of vascular endothelial environment and trigger inflammatory responses such as vasoconstriction, oxidative stress and lipid infiltration [ 34 , 76 ].…”

Novel Biomarkers of Atherosclerotic Vascular Disease—Latest Insights in the Research Field

“…Furthermore, miR-122-5p and miR-223-3p are upregulated in patients with unstable CAD and may be considered a marker of atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability [114,115]. Not all molecules in the miRNA family have elevated serum levels, with clinical studies showing a downregulation effect in miR-1273, miR-490, miR-24, and miR-1284 [116]. miR-32 is also a promising biomarker in CAD patients, with high levels of miR-32-5p identified in their exosomes [110,117,118].…”

Differential Inflammatory Responses in Cultured Endothelial Cells Exposed to Two Conjugated Linoleic Acids (CLAs) under a Pro-Inflammatory Condition

“…Atherosclerosis is the disease that results from the formation of atheromatous plaques within the arterial wall, causing thickening or hardening [ 12 ]. It plays a key role in the progression of cardiovascular diseases, including coronary artery disease and stroke, which are still among the leading causes of death globally [ 13 ].…”