Particulate matters, aldehydes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons produced from deep-frying emissions: comparisons of three cooking oils with distinct fatty acid profiles

Abstract

It is recognized that hazardous emissions produced from frying oils may be related to oil properties, particularly the fatty acid composition. However, investigations have been limited and partial. In this work, the emissions from deep-frying foods with three oils (palm, olive, and soybean oils) with distinct fatty acid profiles were comprehensively examined in a simulated kitchen, and the interrelationship among emitted substances, oil quality parameters, and fatty acids profiles was explored. Firstly, palm oil emitted the highest number concentration of total particle matters ((3895 ± 1796) × 103 #/cm3), mainly in the Aitken mode (20–100 nm). We observed a positive correlation between particle number concentration and levels of palmitic acid, a major saturated fatty acid (SAFA) (rs = 0.73, p < 0.05), and total polar compounds (TPC) (rs = 0.68, p < 0.05) in the fried oil, a degradation marker which was also positively correlated with that of black carbon (BC) (rs = 0.68, p < 0.05). Secondly, soybean oil emitted the highest level of gaseous aldehydes (3636 ± 607 μg/m3), including acrolein, propinoaldehyde, crotonaldehyde, hexanal, and trans-2-heptenal; the total aldehyde concentration were positively correlated with α-linolenic acid (ALA) percentage (rs = 0.78, p < 0.01), while hexanal and trans-2-heptenal were with linoleic acid (LA) (rs = 0.73 and 0.67, p < 0.05). LA and ALA were two major polyunsaturated fatty acids in non-tropical plant oils. Thirdly, palm oil emitted the most particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and a positive association was discovered between two PAHs and SAFA percentage. Olive oil seems superior to soybean and palm oils with regards to toxic emissions during deep-frying.

Biomonitoring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon levels in domestic kitchens using commonly grown culinary herbs

“…5%). Chiang et al [ 10 ] measured total, gaseous-phase and particle-phase PAHs emission rates when different vegetable oils (soybean oil, palm oil, and olive oil) were used for deep-frying. Of gaseous-phase PAHs, naphthalene amounted to 87% in olive oil.…”

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons content of food, water and vegetables and associated cancer risk assessment in Southern Nigeria

“…Contrary to our findings, Palm oil has been shown to emit significantly higher particle-phase PAHs than soybean oil and olive oil. Cyclopenta(c,d)pyrene was the predominant particle-phase PAH, accounting for 62, 56, and 37% of the particle-phase PAH for soybean oil, palm oil, and olive oil, respectively [ 48 ]. Higher PAH levels have been demonstrated in palm oil compared to peanut oil samples in Northern Nigeria [ 46 ].…”

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Occurrence and Formation in Processed Meat, Edible Oils, and Cereal-Derived Products: A Review

“…Moreover, the fatty acid composition of the oil also affects PAH content [185], similar to the case of fatty acids from animal sources, where the number of carbon atoms and the respective degree of unsaturation influence PAH formation during processing [158]. The findings of Liu et al (2019) indicated that the increase in the fatty acid carbon number and unsaturation leads to a proportional rise in PAH levels [158].…”

“…(2022) reported that palm oil generated more particle-bound PAHs in comparison with soybean and olive oils. In addition, saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in general, and palmitic acid in particular, were found to contribute to PAH formation as a result of significant positive correlations between palmitic acid and acenaphthene (r = 0.74, p < 0.05) and benzo(e)pyrene (r = 0.79, p < 0.05), as well as between SFAs and chrysene (r = 0.86, p < 0.01) [185].…”