The chemical group comprising polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) has received prolonged evaluation and scrutiny in the past several decades. PAHs are ubiquitous carcinogenic pollutants and pose a significant threat to human health through their environmental prevalence and distribution. Regardless of their origin, natural or anthropogenic, PAHs generally stem from the incomplete combustion of organic materials. Dietary intake, one of the main routes of human exposure to PAHs, is modulated by pre-existing food contamination (air, water, soil) and their formation and accumulation during food processing. To this end, processing techniques and cooking options entailing thermal treatment carry additional weight in determining the PAH levels in the final product. With the background provided, this study aims to provide an improved understanding of PAH occurrence in meat, edible oils, and cereal products. The factors influencing PAH formation, including operational conditions and parameters, product composition, and storage settings, are described. The discussion also addresses reduction directions with respect to influencing factors informing the choice of the employed technique, fuel type, time–temperature settings, and ingredient variations. Considering the disparities caused by wide variations in PAH contamination, challenges associated with PAH control requirements are also outlined in the context of relevant preventive approaches during food processing.
The study aimed to investigate the influence of repeated frying processes of potatoes in a fryer on the acrylamide content of French fries. For deep-frying, potatoes of the Asinaria variety, sunflower and palm oils were used. For each oil type, five frying cycles at 170°C, for 6 min were performed and the acrylamide content of the final product was analyzed using the solid phase extraction (SPE) technique and the GC-MS/MS method. The acrylamide content increased in the case of sunflower oil in the first three frying cycles, while for palm oil it increased in the fourth frying cycles, then a decrease was recorded. The mean acrylamide content of French fries samples fried in sunflower oil (1477.07 μg/kg) was higher than the one of French fries fried in palm oil (1258.95 μg/kg). For all samples analyzed, the acrylamide content exceeded the benchmark level of 500 μg/kg settled by the EU 2017/2158. The acrylamide content of French fries was correlated with the color parameter L*.
The purpose of this paper was to compare the composition (weight % of total identified FA) in saturated (SFA), monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated (PUFA) fatty acids from 3 food matrices (sunflower oil, palm oil and lard) by 2 different techniques, gas chromatography - mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). For GC-MS technique, fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) identification in the samples was performed by comparison of the retention times (RT) and the mass/charge (m/z) ratio characteristic of each FAME component in the reference standards used (F.A.M.E. Mix C4 - C24 and SRM®2377). FAMEs quantification from food samples was realized by applying correction factors calculated based on reference standards. NMR spectra were recorded on a Bruker Advance 400 MHz spectrometer, operating at 9.4 Tesla corresponding to the resonance frequency of 400.13 MHz for the 1H nucleus. The NMR spectra was recorded directly on the oil without any sample preparation. The difference between the mean values of the fatty acids content determined by GC-MS and NMR was not more than ± 15% for sunflower oil and lard, and ± 6% for palm oil.
French fries, prepared either at home or in fast food restaurants, are one of the most desired dishes of Romanians and the main contributors to the intake of acrylamide through the diet. The aim of this study was to investigate how the frying in at home and fast food conditions influences the acrylamide level of French fries and to establish a correlation between acrylamide content and the color parameters. Potatoes from the Queen Anne variety and two types of oil (sunflower, palm) were used. Frying in at home conditions was realized in a pan in sunflower and palm oils (103°C for 13-15 minutes) and frying in fast food conditions was performed in a fryer using only palm oil (170°C for 11 minutes). Determination of acrylamide was achieved fallowing the GC-MS/MS method. The level of acrylamide in French fries fried in at home conditions showed higher acrylamide content when the sunflower oil was used (764.58 µg/kg) compared to the samples fried in palm oil (541.65 µg/kg). Also, a variation between the two types of frying was observed when using palm oil and a lower acrylamide level was obtained for French fries fried in at home conditions (541.65 µg/kg) than for potatoes fried in fast food conditions (684.37 µg/kg). For all the samples analyzed the acrylamide content exceeded the benchmark level of 500 µg/kg set by the Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/2158. Linear correlations between acrylamide levels, expressed in % d.m., and the color parameters (L*, a* and b*) were found: as the level of acrylamide increased, the parameters L* and b* (R2 = 0.80) decreased, and a* increased (R2 = 0.68).
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