Paper: violence, abuse and exploitation among trafficked women and girls: a mixed-methods study in Nigeria and Uganda

Abstract

Background Africa is the global region where modern-slavery is most prevalent, especially among women and girls. Despite the severe health consequences of human trafficking, evidence on the risks and experiences of trafficked adolescents and young women is scarce for the region. This paper addresses this gap by exploring the intersections between violence, migration and exploitation among girls and young women identified as trafficking survivors in Nigeria and Uganda. Methods We conducted secondary analysis of the largest routine dataset on human trafficking survivors. We used descriptive statistics to report the experiences of female survivors younger than 25 years-old from Nigeria and Uganda. We also conducted 16 semi-structured interviews with adolescents identified as trafficked in both countries. We used thematic analysis to explore participants’ perceptions and experiences before, during and after the trafficking situation. Results Young female survivors of human trafficking in Nigeria and Uganda are exposed to a range of experiences of violence before migration, during transit and at destination. The qualitative data revealed that children and adolescents migrated to escape family poverty, violence and neglect. They had very low levels of education and most had their studies interrupted before migrating. Family members and close social contacts were the most common intermediaries for their migration. During transit, sexual violence and hunger were common, especially among Nigerians. Participants in both the quantitative and qualitative studies reported high levels of violence, deception, coercion, withheld wages and poor working conditions at destination. The adolescents interviewed in the qualitative study reported severe mental suffering, including suicide attempts. Only one reported the prosecution of perpetrators. Conclusions Our findings suggest that interventions to prevent or mitigate the negative impact of adverse childhood experiences can contribute to preventing the trafficking of adolescents in Nigeria and Uganda. These interventions include social protection mechanisms, universal access to education, social service referrals and education of parents and carers. Importantly, effective prevention also needs to address the systemic conditions that makes trafficking of female adolescents invisible, profitable and inconsequential for perpetrators.

Human trafficking risk factors, health impacts, and opportunities for intervention in Uganda: a qualitative analysis

“…Human trafficking victims in this study were systematically made to feel worthless and depressive symptoms, symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, and negative self-perception were common. Our findings are in line with data from other human trafficking studies in Africa which showed psychological, sexual, and physical violence against human trafficking victims at different stages of the trafficking cycle [ 18 – 21 ]. For example, in a mixed-methods study among human trafficking survivors in Nigeria and Uganda, sexual violence and hunger were reported during transit, and abusive working conditions, restricted freedom, and sexual and physical violence were reported during the exploitation phase [ 18 ].…”

“…Our findings are in line with data from other human trafficking studies in Africa which showed psychological, sexual, and physical violence against human trafficking victims at different stages of the trafficking cycle [ 18 – 21 ]. For example, in a mixed-methods study among human trafficking survivors in Nigeria and Uganda, sexual violence and hunger were reported during transit, and abusive working conditions, restricted freedom, and sexual and physical violence were reported during the exploitation phase [ 18 ]. A retrospective cohort study in Ethiopia among 671 trafficked women found prevalent sexual violence during predeparture, in transit, and the trafficking destination [ 19 ], and among 43 trafficked children in Ghana, maltreatment including starvation, sleep deprivation, denial of healthcare, and verbal and physical abuse was found [ 21 ].…”

“…The financial hardship described in our interviews was often triggered by the death of a caretaker, with almost half of interview participants reporting to have lost a family member. The apparent ubiquitousness of early death in this setting, also noted in other human trafficking research from Uganda and Nigeria, is a worrying public health finding in and of itself and raises questions about the cause of this mortality [ 18 ]. The HIV epidemic, armed conflict and natural hazards and disasters likely contribute to these untimely fatalities, once again underlining the need for holistic public health interventions.…”

Risk and Protective Factors for Sexual Exploitation in Male and Female Youth From a Cross-Cultural Perspective: A Systematic Review

“…The risks related to social networks could be divided into a lack of a social or support network, exposure to the sex trade through friends and family, and negative peer networks. The lack of a social network or social support was qualitatively studied among predominantly females (one study included one male) in different counties (Canada, the United Kingdom, Mexico, Uganda, and Nigeria; Acharya & Bryson Clark, 2021;Hallett, 2016;Louie, 2018;Kiss et al, 2022;Servin et al, 2015). No gender comparisons were made.…”

“…Criminal behavior and justice system involvement (n = 6) na A history of physical/emotional abuse or neglect (n = 23) was the most cited risk factor for sexual exploitation in both male and female youth (Adjei & Saewyc, 2017;Barnert et al, 2022;Cimino et al, 2017;Cluver et al, 2011;Fedina et al, 2019;Fraley & Aronowitz, 2021;Goldenberg et al, 2015;Greeson et al, 2019b;Kennedy et al, 2012Kennedy et al, , 2021Kiss et al, 2022;Macias-Konstantopoulos et al, 2015;O'Brien et al, 2017;O'Brien, 2018;Panlilio et al, 2019;Perkins & Ruiz, 2017;Reid, 2011Reid, , 2018Roe-Sepowitz, 2012;Servin et al, 2015;Silverman et al, 2007;Varma et al, 2015;de Vries et al, 2020). Studies involved predominantly youth in the United States but also youth in South Africa, Uganda, Nigeria, India, and Mexico.…”