Pain at the Slaughterhouse in Ruminants with a Focus on the Neurobiology of Sensitisation

Wang

Titto

et al. 2021

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Body-temperature elevations are multifactorial in origin and classified as hyperthermia as a rise in temperature due to alterations in the thermoregulation mechanism; the body loses the ability to control or regulate body temperature. In contrast, fever is a controlled state, since the body adjusts its stable temperature range to increase body temperature without losing the thermoregulation capacity. Fever refers to an acute phase response that confers a survival benefit on the body, raising core body temperature during infection or systemic inflammation processes to reduce the survival and proliferation of infectious pathogens by altering temperature, restriction of essential nutrients, and the activation of an immune reaction. However, once the infection resolves, the febrile response must be tightly regulated to avoid excessive tissue damage. During fever, neurological, endocrine, immunological, and metabolic changes occur that cause an increase in the stable temperature range, which allows the core body temperature to be considerably increased to stop the invasion of the offending agent and restrict the damage to the organism. There are different metabolic mechanisms of thermoregulation in the febrile response at the central and peripheral levels and cellular events. In response to cold or heat, the brain triggers thermoregulatory responses to coping with changes in body temperature, including autonomic effectors, such as thermogenesis, vasodilation, sweating, and behavioral mechanisms, that trigger flexible, goal-oriented actions, such as seeking heat or cold, nest building, and postural extension. Infrared thermography (IRT) has proven to be a reliable method for the early detection of pathologies affecting animal health and welfare that represent economic losses for farmers. However, the standardization of protocols for IRT use is still needed. Together with the complete understanding of the physiological and behavioral responses involved in the febrile process, it is possible to have timely solutions to serious problem situations. For this reason, the present review aims to analyze the new findings in pathophysiological mechanisms of the febrile process, the heat-loss mechanisms in an animal with fever, thermoregulation, the adverse effects of fever, and recent scientific findings related to different pathologies in farm animals through the use of IRT.

Section: Pathophysiology Of Fever and Adverse Effectsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: How Does An Animal With a Fever Thermoregulate? (Neurophysiological Responses To Temperature Control)mentioning

confidence: 99%

Pathophysiology of Fever and Application of Infrared Thermography (IRT) in the Detection of Sick Domestic Animals: Recent Advances

Wang

Titto

et al. 2021

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“…As occurs in other mammals, this physiological response to stress begins with activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), which triggers multiple reactions when the central nervous system (CNS) perceives a potential danger. This, in turn, causes alterations of the autonomous nervous system (ANS), and the neuroendocrine disorders described above [46][47][48].…”

Section: Physiological Responses To Stressorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In addition, the emotional stress and intense exercise that fighting bulls undergo and the exposure to a new environment during the event produce marked increases of cortisol, glucose, and T3 in the bloodstream that can generate significant biochemical changes in the organism by triggering the stress-adaptation syndrome [52]. Catecholamines function to prepare an organism for the "flight-or-fight" response but triggers tachycardia, hypertension, hyperthermia, hyperventilation, and sweating [48,116]. Cortisol begins to be secreted by the adrenal cortex around five minutes after the stressful stimulus is presented.…”

Section: Metabolic Responses Linked To Psychological Stress and Physical Exercisementioning

confidence: 99%

Quality of Death in Fighting Bulls during Bullfights: Neurobiology and Physiological Responses

Napolitano

Strappini

et al. 2021

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During bullfights, bulls undergo physiometabolic responses such as glycolysis, anaerobic reactions, cellular oedema, splenic contraction, and hypovolemic shock. The objective of this review article is to present the current knowledge on the factors that cause stress in fighting bulls during bullfights, including their dying process, by discussing the neurobiology and their physiological responses. The literature shows that biochemical imbalances occur during bullfights, including hypercalcaemia, hypermagnesaemia, hyperphosphataemia, hyperlactataemia, and hyperglycaemia, associated with increased endogenous cortisol and catecholamine levels. Creatine kinase, citrate synthase, and lactate dehydrogenase levels also increase, coupled with decreases in pH, blood bicarbonate levels, excess base, partial oxygen pressure, and oxygen saturation. The intense exercise also causes a marked decrease of glycogen in type I and II muscle fibres that can produce myoglobinuria and muscular necrosis. Other observations suggest the presence of osteochondrosis. The existing information allows us to conclude that during bullfights, bulls face energy and metabolic demands due to the high intensity and duration of the exercise performed, together with muscular injuries, physiological changes, and high enzyme concentrations. In addition, the final stage of the bullfight causes a slow dying process for an animal that is sentient and conscious of its surroundings.

“…Interestingly, although their structure has been studied in great detail, we still do not fully understand the mechanism by which TRP opens and closes its gates from the moment a thermal stimulus is perceived. Against this backdrop, the goals of this review are to analyze and contrast recent scientific findings on the morphology, physiology, and neurotransmission mechanisms of TRP, and their function in thermoregulation in non-human animals, as well as enhance our understanding of their functionality and fundamental role in maintaining the body temperature of animals and those susceptible to thermal stress—as can occur during transport [ 27 , 28 , 29 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) and Thermoregulation in Animals: Structural Biology and Neurophysiological Aspects

Lezama-García

Pereira

et al. 2022

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This review presents and analyzes recent scientific findings on the structure, physiology, and neurotransmission mechanisms of transient receptor potential (TRP) and their function in the thermoregulation of mammals. The aim is to better understand the functionality of these receptors and their role in maintaining the temperature of animals, or those susceptible to thermal stress. The majority of peripheral receptors are TRP cation channels formed from transmembrane proteins that function as transductors through changes in the membrane potential. TRP are classified into seven families and two groups. The data gathered for this review include controversial aspects because we do not fully know the mechanisms that operate the opening and closing of the TRP gates. Deductions, however, suggest the intervention of mechanisms related to G protein-coupled receptors, dephosphorylation, and ligands. Several questions emerge from the review as well. For example, the future uses of these data for controlling thermoregulatory disorders and the invitation to researchers to conduct more extensive studies to broaden our understanding of these mechanisms and achieve substantial advances in controlling fever, hyperthermia, and hypothermia.