Outside of a Small Circle of Friends: States, Genocide, Mass Killing and The Role of Bystanders

Abstract

The paper begins with a brief discussion of the conditions under which genocide and other instances of mass killing occur and discusses recent levels of reporting of such instances. The core of the paper is an examination of the circumstances and structural conditions which have allowed these crimes against humanity to go relatively undernoticed and unchallenged. Three interrelated questions concerning the assumptions which are built into the current state system and the state as an institution guide the analysis of how states have arrived at a position in which mass killing by states and their agents is somehow 'accepted' and whereby there is little expectation that other states in the system will intervene on behalf of those in danger. To explore the lack of response further, the literature of 'bystander apathy' is introduced and the classic formulation of Latane & Darley 1969 is employed to structure an exammation of bystander non-involvement in the international system of states. Eleven confounding factors present in the international system are suggested. The paper concludes with some suggestions for moving beyond non-involvement to move beyond the 'small circle of friends' who need to become involved if future mass killings are to be prevented.

The Media’s Coverage of Domestic Terrorism

“…Although there are a couple of scholars who conclude that terrorism is rarely presented in the news (see Crelinsten, 1987;Kelly & Mitchell, 1981), most researchers generally agree that international and domestic acts of terrorism are important media events (Delli Carpini & Williams, 1987;Iyengar & Kinder, 1987;Martin, 1985;Nacos, 2003aNacos, , 2003bPaletz, Ayanian, & Fozzard, 1982;Schmid & de Graaf, 1982;Terry, 1978), but acts of state terrorism are generally ignored (Schmid & de Graaf, 1982;Stohl, 1987). Nacos (2003b, p. 31), for example, concludes, the contemporary news media, especially television, have customarily devoted huge chunks of their broadcast time and news columns to major and minor acts of political violence, supporting the media critics' argument that the mass media, as unwitting as they are, facilitate the media-centered terrorist scheme.…”

International Intervention and the Severity of Genocides and Politicides

“…Bystanders to initial moves toward genocide or politicide signal to perpetrators that there will be no severe consequences at the international level for continuing the killing (Harff, 1986:168;Power, 2002a:503). Perpetrators are not deterred because they view the likelihood of intervention to be minimal (Kuper, 1985;Stohl, 1987;Power, 2002a). When states intervene, they are no longer bystanders, but active participants and potential eyewitnesses to mass murder.…”

“…However, economic status may affect the presence or intensity of international diplomatic and/or economic pressures faced by perpetrators. Stohl (1987) argues that economic interests cloud the judgment of potential interveners within the international system, often creating bystanders. Gurr concurs, arguing, ''peripheral status in the world system increases the likelihood that regimes that rule by violence can do so with impunity'' (Gurr, 1986:61).…”

Reminscences of Morals

“…However, on a deeper level he was partially acting within the normative system of society which condones violence and encourages empathy (Yosef, 2010). This caused the process of realizing the event's true meaning and implications as a deferred action to his consciousness (Stohl, 1987). So, the massacre's tremor took a longer time to be realized by Ari through a process of probing at his "disremembered memories" (Yosef, 2010, p. 318) which enabled him to deal with events that were too terrifying and difficult to experience in the first place.…”