Origin of the West Nile Virus Responsible for an Outbreak of Encephalitis in the Northeastern United States

Lanciotti, Robert S.; Roehrig, John T.; Denis, Vincent; Smith, Jessica L.; Parker, Michael D.; Steele, Keith; Crise, Bruce; Volpe, Katharine E.; Crabtree, Mary B.; Scherret, Jacqueline H.; Hall, Roy A.; Mackenzie, John S.; Cropp, C B; Panigrahy, B.; Ostlund, Eileen N.; Schmitt, Beverly J.; Malkinson, M.; Banet, C.; Weissman, J.; Komar, Nicholas; Savage, Harry M.; Stone, Ward B.; McNamara, Tracey; Gubler, Duane J.

doi:10.1126/science.286.5448.2333

Cited by 1,438 publications

(1,048 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…This high degree of sequence identity between US and Israel WNV strains support the hypothesis that the US WNV strains originated from the Middle East [7]. …”

Section: The Virus and Its Genomesupporting

confidence: 64%

“…Studies of the phylogenetic relatedness on nucleic acid sequence data corresponding to a 255-bp region of the E glycoprotein gene of WNV strains isolated in different geographic regions, demonstrated that WNV isolates fall into two major genetic lineages diverging by 25 to 30% nucleotide differences [12, 13] and several subclades or clusters [7, 12, 14-16]. Lineage 1 is composed of WNV strains with a broad geographical distribution ranging from West Africa to the Middle East, Eastern Europe, North America, and Australia.…”

Section: The Virus and Its Genomementioning

confidence: 99%

“…This clade also includes the Australian (Kunjin) strains isolated from 1960 to 1994 [16], that can be distinguished from other lineage 1 WNV viruses by monoclonal antibody binding and cross-neutralization analysis [7, 15]. According to Lanciotti et al .…”

Section: The Virus and Its Genomementioning

confidence: 99%

“…Lineage 2 contains the B 956 prototype strain and other strains isolated exclusively in the sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar [7, 12, 15]. …”

Section: The Virus and Its Genomementioning

confidence: 99%

“…This cycle is named “epizootic” [57, 58], and may occurs also in urban areas when human activities make available a number of breeding sites for mosquito populations, as happened in Bucharest, Romania, and in the US [5-7]. …”

Section: Wnv Reservoirs and Vectorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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West Nile Virus: Characteristics of an African Virus Adapting to the Third Millennium World

Monini¹

2010

TOVJ

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The emergence and spread of West Nile Virus (WNV) from North through South America during the last decade, and the recent outbreaks of disease in both humans and horses in Europe suggest that the epidemiology of this infection is evolving. WNV is now considered among the emerging threats for both human and veterinary public health in areas like Europe where it was previously regarded to as an exotic agent. Further knowledge has built up from studies investigating the characteristics of the virus and its genome evolution capacity, the adaptation to new avian host species, the changes in vector competence and biology, and the host-pathogen interactions, including the immune response. Also, the new needs for preparedness to future major outbursts of disease have stimulated research on virus detection and characterization, filling the gaps in both specialized diagnostic technology and the need for field rapid assays. This review will present an overview of WNV virology, remarking the impact of virus diversity and evolution on theoretical and practical aspects involved in both risk definition, detection and control of infection.

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“…This high degree of sequence identity between US and Israel WNV strains support the hypothesis that the US WNV strains originated from the Middle East [7]. …”

Section: The Virus and Its Genomesupporting

confidence: 64%

Section: The Virus and Its Genomementioning

confidence: 99%

Section: The Virus and Its Genomementioning

confidence: 99%

“…Lineage 2 contains the B 956 prototype strain and other strains isolated exclusively in the sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar [7, 12, 15]. …”

Section: The Virus and Its Genomementioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Wnv Reservoirs and Vectorsmentioning

confidence: 99%

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West Nile Virus: Characteristics of an African Virus Adapting to the Third Millennium World

Monini¹

2010

TOVJ

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Emerging Viral Infections of the Central Nervous System

Tyler¹

2009

Arch Neurol

107

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n this 2-part review, I will focus on emerging virus infections of the central nervous system (CNS). Part 1 will introduce the basic features of emerging infections, including their definition, epidemiology, and the frequency of CNS involvement. Important mechanisms of emergence will be reviewed, including viruses spreading into new host ranges as exemplified by West Nile virus (WNV), Japanese encephalitis (JE) virus, Toscana virus, and enterovirus 71 (EV71). Emerging infections also result from opportunistic spread of viruses into known niches, often resulting from attenuated host resistance to infection. This process is exemplified by transplantassociated cases of viral CNS infection caused by WNV, rabies virus, lymphocytic choriomeningitis, and lymphocytic choriomeningitis-like viruses and by the syndrome of human herpesvirus 6 (HHV6)-associated posttransplantation acute limbic encephalitis. The second part of this review begins with a discussion of JC virus and the occurrence of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in association with novel immunomodulatory therapies and then continues with an overview of the risk of infection introduced by imported animals (eg, monkeypox virus) and examples of emerging diseases caused by enhanced competence of viruses for vectors and the spread of vectors (eg, chikungunya virus) and then concludes with examples of novel viruses causing CNS infection as exemplified by Nipah and Hendra viruses and bat lyssaviruses.

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West Nile Virus: Review of the Literature

Petersen

Brault

Nasci

2013

JAMA

571

572

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IMPORTANCE Since its introduction in North America in 1999,West Nile virus has produced the 3 largest arboviral neuroinvasive disease outbreaks ever recorded in the United States. OBJECTIVE To review the ecology, virology, epidemiology, clinical characteristics, diagnosis, prevention, and control of West Nile virus, with an emphasis on North America. EVIDENCE REVIEW PubMed electronic database was searched through February 5, 2013. United States national surveillance data were gathered from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. FINDINGS West Nile virus is now endemic throughout the contiguous United States, with 16 196 human neuroinvasive disease cases and 1549 deaths reported since 1999. More than 780 000 illnesses have likely occurred. To date, incidence is highest in the Midwest from mid-July to early September. West Nile fever develops in approximately 25% of those infected, varies greatly in clinical severity, and symptoms may be prolonged. Neuroinvasive disease (meningitis, encephalitis, acute flaccid paralysis) develops in less than 1% but carries a fatality rate of approximately 10%. Encephalitis has a highly variable clinical course but often is associated with considerable long-term morbidity. Approximately two-thirds of those with paralysis remain with significant weakness in affected limbs. Diagnosis usually rests on detection of IgM antibody in serum or cerebrospinal fluid. Treatment is supportive; no licensed human vaccine exists. Prevention uses an integrated pest management approach, which focuses on surveillance, elimination of mosquito breeding sites, and larval and adult mosquito management using pesticides to keep mosquito populations low. During outbreaks or impending outbreaks, emphasis shifts to aggressive adult mosquito control to reduce the abundance of infected, biting mosquitoes. Pesticide exposure and adverse human health events following adult mosquito control operations for West Nile virus appear negligible. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE In North America, West Nile virus has and will remain a formidable clinical and public health problem for years to come.

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Origin of the West Nile Virus Responsible for an Outbreak of Encephalitis in the Northeastern United States

Cited by 1,438 publications

References 15 publications

West Nile Virus: Characteristics of an African Virus Adapting to the Third Millennium World

West Nile Virus: Characteristics of an African Virus Adapting to the Third Millennium World

Emerging Viral Infections of the Central Nervous System

West Nile Virus: Review of the Literature

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