“…In order to further investigate the potential of laser-induced graphene as a counter electrode in PSC compared to gold, and to explore the impact of varying hole and electron transport layers beyond the scope of our experimental capabilities as demonstrated in section 3, we employed the SCAPS-1D simulator to analyze the J – V characteristics of different PSC configurations. In this study, we adapted our previously established SCAPS model as presented in refs , , , , and in conjunction with data sourced from the research literature. , The simulation model was initialized with the experimentally derived material parameters for TiO 2 ,− and NiO, serving as the electron and hole transport layers, respectively, along with FTO and LIG electrodes. Additionally, other materials were considered, such as SnO 2 as a potential electron transport layer, and copper(I) oxide (Cu 2 O) and copper bismuth thiophosphate (CBTS) for the hole transport layers, in conjunction with an Au electrode, guided by data compiled from literature sources. , …”