“…Diagnostic models provide a statistical framework for designing formative assessments by classifying student knowledge profiles according to a collection of fine-grained attributes (de la Torre & Douglas, 2004;Rupp et al, 2010;von Davier, 2008). In fact, learning technology algorithms leverage the diagnostic modelling framework by tailoring learning interventions to adapt to individual students' capabilities and needs (Chen, Li, et al, 2018;Han et al, 2020;Huang et al, 2019;Li et al, 2018;Tan et al, 2020;Zhang & Chang, 2016) and to track skill development Madison & Bradshaw, 2018;Studer, 2012;Wang et al, 2017;Wang, Zhang, et al, 2018;Ye et al, 2016;Yigit & Douglas, 2021;Zhang & Chang, 2020).…”