Optical-Based Biosensors and Their Portable Healthcare Devices for Detecting and Monitoring Biomarkers in Body Fluids

Abstract

The detection and monitoring of biomarkers in body fluids has been used to improve human healthcare activities for decades. In recent years, researchers have focused their attention on applying the point-of-care (POC) strategies into biomarker detection. The evolution of mobile technologies has allowed researchers to develop numerous portable medical devices that aim to deliver comparable results to clinical measurements. Among these, optical-based detection methods have been considered as one of the common and efficient ways to detect and monitor the presence of biomarkers in bodily fluids, and emerging aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens) with their distinct features are merging with portable medical devices. In this review, the detection methodologies that use optical measurements in the POC systems for the detection and monitoring of biomarkers in bodily fluids are compared, including colorimetry, fluorescence and chemiluminescence measurements. The current portable technologies, with or without the use of smartphones in device development, that are combined with optical biosensors for the detection and monitoring of biomarkers in body fluids, are also investigated. The review also discusses novel AIEgens used in the portable systems for the detection and monitoring of biomarkers in body fluid. Finally, the potential of future developments and the use of optical detection-based portable devices in healthcare activities are explored.

Photonic Interpenetrating Polymer Network Fibers Comprising Intertwined Solid-State Cholesteric Liquid Crystal and Polyelectrolyte Networks for Sensor Applications

“…Therefore, it is crucial to develop effective diagnostic methods for early identification of clinical biomarkers in body fluids to promptly detect potential disease states and disease-associated physiological signatures. 31 Photonic IPN structures are a system that can meet these effective diagnostic requirements. Photonic IPN films and droplets have been applied in glucose and urea biosensors by immobilizing their enzymes.…”

Portable Colorimetric Device with Commercial Microplates for Quantitative Detection of Urine Biomarkers: Design, Development, and Clinical Evaluation

“…Colorimetric examination is a common analytical method for measuring chemicals in both research and clinical fields. The principle of this method is to observe the colour changes of a mixture solution of the specific analyte and the recognising agent due to their chemical or biochemical reactions [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. The operator can read the quantitative result of the chemical presence by observing the colour changes of the mixture with the naked eye [ 1 , 3 , 4 , 6 , 7 ].…”

“…Although these devices reported high sensitivity and stability, most are only used in research applications. In these devices, a smartphone is commonly used as the optical sensor, but the rapid development of mobile technology and the varied dimensions of smartphones create compatibility issues, and the internal processing of the optical cameras affect measurement accuracy [ 5 ]. Furthermore, smartphone use introduces issues with user confidentiality and cross-contamination hazards [ 5 , 17 ].…”

“…Another parameter for consideration when developing a chemical analysis device is the target analyte. As mentioned above, portable colorimetry devices can detect various chemical or biomolecules in solutions, which can be used as biomarkers, such as the presence of albumin in urine indicating kidney disease, a reduced citrate level in urine suggesting prostate cancer, the level of cardiac Troponin I (cTnI) in blood helping the diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction, or the absence of glutathione in saliva indicating the potential of head-neck cancer [ 5 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ]. The detection target will influence the design choices, such as the sensitivity of the detecting sensor, the background light intensity, and the recognising reagent type.…”

Coupled Gold Nanoparticles with Aptamers Colorimetry for Detection of Amoxicillin in Human Breast Milk Based on Image Preprocessing and BP-ANN

“…Colorimetry is a method in which results can be observed by the naked eye and the change can be captured by electronic devices without costly equipment. Due to their stability, high sensitivity and selectivity, cost-effectiveness, and ease of use, colorimetric methods are one of the most widely used detection method applications [ 18 ]. At the same time, colorimetric methods can also be used in conjunction with artificial intelligence algorithms, such as the smartphone-MATLAB algorithm [ 19 ], to improve the convenience and speed of detection.…”