Operational Protocols for the Use of Drones in Marine Animal Research

Abstract

The use of drones to study marine animals shows promise for the examination of numerous aspects of their ecology, behaviour, health and movement patterns. However, the responses of some marine phyla to the presence of drones varies broadly, as do the general operational protocols used to study them. Inconsistent methodological approaches could lead to difficulties comparing studies and can call into question the repeatability of research. This review draws on current literature and researchers with a wealth of practical experience to outline the idiosyncrasies of studying various marine taxa with drones. We also outline current best practice for drone operation in marine environments based on the literature and our practical experience in the field. The protocols outlined herein will be of use to researchers interested in incorporating drones as a tool into their research on marine animals and will help form consistent approaches for drone-based studies in the future.

Volitional Swimming Kinematics of Blacktip Sharks, Carcharhinus limbatus, in the Wild

“…Currently, the monetary cost associated with electronic tags is also significant, in the range of thousands of US dollars, as well as the time and effort required to capture and instrument each individual, then recover the tags afterwards. In contrast, aerial drones can sample many individuals with minimal effort, cost, and time [24][25][26][27][28]37]. Analyzing video footage of swimming animals provides a direct measurement of kinematic variables compared to interpretating acceleration data.…”

“…The imaging capabilities on UAS, ROV (remotely operated vehicle), and AUV (autonomous underwater vehicle) platforms allow researchers to discretely record photos and videos from animals exhibiting natural behaviors, and this is becoming more prevalent in studies of marine megafauna [20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31]. The utilization of aerial drones for elasmobranch research is an emergent technique that has provided a new tool for scientists to explore the life history and behaviors of various species.…”

Accuracy and precision of citizen scientist animal counts from drone imagery

“…We conducted drone flights above Año Nuevo Island (37.1083°N, 122.3378°W), located on the West Coast of California, USA, using recommended best practices [ 30 ]. Año Nuevo Island is a rookery for many marine bird species and a breeding site for multiple pinniped species.…”

Autonomous Deployment of Underwater Acoustic Monitoring Devices Using an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle: The Flying Hydrophone

“…Consumer UAVs were flown to evaluate the behavioural responses of bottlenose dolphins and Antillean manatees [59]. Dolphins exhibited low responsiveness to UAV flights and in general only responded to a small proportion of the observations, but there is an increasing amount of evidence to suggest the presence of UAVs at altitudes less than 30 m elicits a response from bottlenose dolphins [60]. The manatees, on the other hand, exhibited a sensitivity to the movements of the aircraft and displayed evasive behaviour towards the UAVs at altitudes as high as 100 m.…”

“…Research suggests ambient noise in the environment likely masks the noise emitted by UAVs in certain habitats; however, noise levels are higher near the water surface and in shallow waters [61,62]. Recommendations and best practices for the usage of UAVs in marine mammal research suggest flying UAVs at highest possible altitudes to gain usable data, minimising UAV movements and approach angle and also taking into consideration if the noise from the UAV falls within the frequency range of the species' hearing [59,60]. It is important to note that the lack of an observed behavioural response does not necessarily suggest a lack of impact.…”