Open Learning Environments and the Impact of a Pedagogical Agent

Abstract

Research reveals that in highly structured learning environments pedagogical agents can act as tools to direct students' learning processes by providing content or problem solving guidance. It has not yet been addressed whether pedagogical agents have a similar impact in more open learning environments that aim at fostering students' acquisition of complex problem solving skills. To fill this gap, this study compares two experimental conditions to a control condition. In the first experimental condition, the pedagogical agent's interventions are adapted to students' activities (APA-group). In the second experimental group, the agent interferes on fixed time intervals (NPA-group). Students work on an environmental problem in an open learning environment. It was hypothesized that the two experimental groups would outperform the control group and, additionally, that the APA-group would outperform the NPA-group. Results show that the NPA-group outperforms the control group, and that the APA-group takes a middle position, not differing from either the NPA-group or the control-group. Consequently, the second hypothesis was not confirmed. An agent providing adapted advice did not result in better performance. The discussion provides some possible explanations for these results. / CLAREBOUT AND ELEN

Scaffolding for Optimal Challenge in K–12 Problem-Based Learning

“…By effectively controlling the timing and degree of scaffolding, students can take the responsibility for their learning processes (Chang, Sung, & Chen, 2002), which can lead to self-directed learning (Loyens et al, 2008). It is very difficult, in computer-based instruction, to diagnose students' state of understanding, motivation, and metacognition (Azevedo, Cromley, & Seibert, 2004;Clarebout & Elen, 2006;Lee, Lee, Leu, & others, 2008;Ruzhitskaya, 2011). Most computerbased scaffolding that incorporates fading employs fixed fading, in which scaffolds are removed after a fixed time interval and are thus not completely adapted to student ability.…”

Effectiveness of Computer-Based Scaffolding in the Context of Problem-Based Learning for Stem Education: Bayesian Meta-analysis

“…For example, students can be invited to consider the complexity that is integral to the target skill and spared the burden of addressing complexity that is not (Reiser 2004) through computer-based hints (Leemkuil and de Jong 2012;Li 2001;Schrader and Bastiaens 2012), visualization (Cuevas et al 2002;Kumar 2005;Linn et al 2006), question Educ Psychol Rev prompts (Hmelo-Silver and Day 1999;Kramarski and Gutman 2006), and concept mapping (Puntambekar et al 2003). In addition, computer-based scaffolding can improve students' interest and motivation toward their learning (Clarebout and Elen 2006). …”

Pedagogical Agents

“…Future research focusing upon (a) agents within digital learning environments vis-a-vis stand-alone agents, and (b) agents in open-ended learning environments, will be beneficial to the field. Examples of both of these foci are already present in the literature (e.g., Clarebout & Elen, 2006, 2007Zumbach, Schmitt, Reimann, & Starkloff, 2006).…”

“…While the suggestions arise from individual studies, a number of future directions are recurrent. Such directions include the need for longitudinal and long-term research (Baylor, 2011;Choi & Clark, 2006;Dehn & van Mulken, 2000;Gulz, 2004), multidisciplinary investigations Veletsianos, Heller, Overmyer, & Procter, 2010;Yung & Dwyer, 2010), investigations of agent-learner interactions in situations where agent behavior adapts (e.g., agents are able to dialogue with learners) (Clarebout & Elen, 2006;Domagk, 2010;Dunsworth & Atkinson, 2007), exploration of agents' visual form, appearance, appeal, and aesthetics (Baylor, 2009;Domagk, 2010;Gulz & Haake, 2006;Veletsianos, 2007), and investigations of agents' nonverbal communication (Baylor & Kim, 2009;Frechette & Moreno, 2010). In addition to the research directions identified in existing literature, based on our synthesis, we suggest that the following three areas also need to be considered by pedagogical agent researchers: cognitive and sociocultural foci, methodological focus, and supporting student-centered inquiry within open-ended environments.…”