One Person—No Vote; One Vote; Two Votes: Voting Methods, Ballot Types, and Undervote Frequency in the 2000 Presidential Election

Abstract

Objectives. Political science long ignored the actual mechanics of voting-until the 2000 presidential contest. This research note offers a systematic empirical inquiry into the potential effects of various voting methods and electorate-specific variables on the rate at which citizens register a preference via the act of voting. Methods. Voting methods were analyzed in relation to the rate of undervotes recorded in Georgia's 159 counties during the 2000 general election using a set of multivariate models. Results. Lever machines and fill in the oval optical scan ballots are associated with lower rates of undervoting. Counties with large numbers of new registrants, lower education levels, and a higher proportion of African-American voters were found to have higher error rates. Conclusions. The results of this study provide strong evidence that voting methods and ballot types, as well as electorate-specific characteristics, are key factors in determining the error rate associated with the process of voting at the county level.The 2000 recount in Florida riveted national attention for weeks on problems associated with the casting and counting of votes. The intensive investigation in Florida revealed that failure to register a clear preference by those who intend to cast a ballot may result either from voter confusion or problems with the apparatus used to conduct elections. A third alleged cause of voting problems was racial discrimination as a result of failure to provide assistance to minority voters. Diagnosing the nature of the problem is essential if obstacles to the voting process are to be eliminated. To the extent that voters wishing to register a choice are thwarted because of equipment problems, acquisition of more reliable or more easily operated election systems may remedy the problem. If, however, failure to register a choice stems from voter confusion, the solution may involve voters acquiring greater familiarity with the process. If minority voters are especially likely to confront problems, a more hospitable environment may eliminate racial disparities.

Overvoting and the Equality of Voice under Instant-Runoff Voting in San Francisco

“…A relatively higher rate of overvotes resulting in spoiled ballots was found in precincts with more black residents (Neely and Cook 2008). This follows work that has examined the residual vote (Bullock and Hood 2002;Darcy and Schneider 1989;Kimball et al 2004;Kimball and Kropf 2005) and overvotes, in particular (Sinclair and Alvarez 2004). 5 Higher counts of overvotes were also found, at times, among San Francisco communities with more Latino residents (Neely and Cook 2008), something shown in a similar analysis of voters in Los Angeles (Sinclair and Alvarez 2004), and in areas with more foreignborn residents.…”

Overvoting and the Equality of Voice under Instant-Runoff Voting in San Francisco

“…A relatively higher rate of overvotes resulting in spoiled ballots was found in precincts with more black residents (Neely and Cook 2008). This follows work that has examined the residual vote (Bullock and Hood 2002;Darcy and Schneider 1989;Kimball et al 2004;Kimball and Kropf 2005) and overvotes, in particular (Sinclair and 5 Alvarez 2004). 5 Higher counts of overvotes were also found, at times, among San Francisco communities with more Latino residents (Neely and Cook 2008), something shown in a similar analysis of voters in Los Angeles (Sinclair and Alvarez 2004), and in areas with more foreignborn residents.…”

“…However, because those differences were rare in the earlier IRV analysis (Neely and Cook 2008) we expect there to be no significant difference in overvotes between areas with more male or female residents. Other factors have been shown to matter in the rate at which voters cast uncounted ballots: elderly voters (Darcy and Schneider 1989;Kimball and Kropf 2005;Stiefbold 1965), less educated voters (Walker 1966;Bullock and Hood 2002), and poorer voters (Darcy and Schneider 1989;Kimball, Owens, and Keeney 2004;Knack and Kropf 2003) have been identified as more likely to cast a ballot that is not counted. However, the prior IRV study found few of these relationships.…”

“…Analyses of uncounted votes have shown that ballot complexity can cause voter fatigue and confusion (Bullock and Dunn 1996;Walker 1966). Choices may be affected by the sequence of the names listed (Hecock and Bain 1956;Krosnick, Miller, and Tichy 2004) or the general layout of the information on the ballot paper (Bullock and Hood 2002;Darcy and Schneider 1989;Kimball and Kropf 2005;Walker 1966). The previous study of IRV in San Francisco showed that the counts of overvotes were consistently and positively related to the number of candidates on the slate (Neely and Cook 2008).…”

Non-voted ballots, the cost of voting, and race

“…Others propose replacing punch card voting with either mechanical lever machines or optical scans (Bullock and Hood 2002;Knack and Kropf 2003). 3 The 2002 federal Help America Vote Act created a grant program for states that replaces punch card or lever voting machines with computer-based 'touch screen' systems.…”