On the Resilience of DAG-Based Distributed Ledgers in IoT Applications

Cullen, Andrew; Ferraro, Pietro; King, Christopher; Shorten, Robert

doi:10.1109/jiot.2020.2983401

Cited by 48 publications

(24 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…Theoretically, it is possible to even reach the speed of 1 000 000 TPS on the Hashgraph protocol. Having advantages such as high transaction rate along with a resilient architecture, 129 IOTA provides a large application base. For example, the authors 130 used the IOTA cryptocurrency to propose a privacy-preserving tolling architecture that supports decentralized feeless transfers for providing communication with roadside infrastructures.…”

Section: Advantages Over Traditional Blockchainmentioning

confidence: 99%

Framework for determining the suitability of blockchain: Criteria and issues to consider

Hassija

Zeadally

Jain

et al. 2021

Trans Emerging Tel Tech

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Various distributed ledger technologies (DLTs), such as blockchain, have evolved significantly in recent years. These technologies provide a robust and effective solution for providing confidentiality, integrity, nonrepudiation, authentication, and transparency. While blockchain has many advantages, it has various limitations as well, such as complexity, low throughput, privacy, and so on. We discuss the issues that must be considered when deciding whether to use these technologies in a given case or not. We describe the operation of blockchain, application areas where blockchain is suitable, and those where it is not. We also discuss the applicability of other emerging DLTs, apart from blockchain technology, such as Hashgraph, Zcash, Nano coin, and IOTA. INTRODUCTIONAs the name suggests, a blockchain can be considered as a database where digital information (ie, "Blocks") is stored in a distributed network as a chain of blocks. Blockchain falls in the class of distributed ledger technologies (DLT) that allow a database to be used and maintained in a distributed manner. Blockchain provides a shared ledger of transactions 1 that can be read, verified and stored in the form of blocks, forming a chain-like structure. Depending on the size of the transaction, a block may store up to a few thousand transactions (eg, a single block in the bitcoin blockchain can store about 1 MB of data). The security and anonymity provided by blockchain relies on the use of public key based digital signatures, hash functions, and the distributed nature of the database. Participants in a blockchain are connected through a peer-to-peer (P2P) network and are independent of each other. 2 This architecture allows the sharing of resources, 3 avoids single point of failure, and reduces the likelihood of data tampering because the data is not stored or managed by specific nodes. [4][5][6] However, there are many challenges 7 that need to be resolved in the case of distributed networks. These challenges include accountability, confidentiality, integrity, nonrepudiation, and authentication, due to the absence of any central authority. Another major issue is trust because there is no central authority that can resolve any ambiguities or disagreements that may occur. Blockchain resolves all these issues. Confidentiality and authentication are ensured using two-way encryption, that is, by encrypting the data first by the sender's private key and then by the receiver's public key. To decrypt it, first the receiver's private key is used and then the sender's public key. Consequently, data remains confidential, integrity is achieved and because the data can be obtained using sender's public key, it acts as a digital signature that authenticates the data and eliminates the possibility of nonrepudiation. Trust is obtained by introducing a consensus Trans Emerging Tel Tech.

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Section: Advantages Over Traditional Blockchainmentioning

confidence: 99%

Framework for determining the suitability of blockchain: Criteria and issues to consider

Hassija

Zeadally

Jain

et al. 2021

Trans Emerging Tel Tech

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“…[146] presented a survey of IoT applications in blockchain systems. The survey did cover the direct acyclic graph (DAG) based distributed ledger technology (DLT), along with the fast growing IOTA [134], [135] Federated blockchains [133], [136], [137], [138] Multiple chains [139], [140], [141], [142], [143] Consensus Stellar [136], Ripple [137], CAPER [138] Database tech. Sharding [144] Transaction reordering [145] Tangle [134] implementation.…”

Section: B Scalability Of Blockchainmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…IOTA Tangle proposed two TSA algorithms in their original white paper [134], the random selection algorithm and the random-walk-based Monte Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) selection algorithm. But as recognised by themselves and follow-up improvements [135], IOTA Tangle is still vulnerable to the parasite chain attack, which could cause damage to the immutability and irreversibility of the ledger. In this aspect, IOTA Tangle still needs critical improvements to meet the high demands in security and fault tolerance from IIoT critical infrastructure applications.…”

Section: B Scalability Of Blockchainmentioning

confidence: 99%

Convergence of Blockchain and Edge Computing for Secure and Scalable IIoT Critical Infrastructures in Industry 4.0

Dai

Wang

2021

IEEE Internet Things J.

213

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Critical infrastructure systems are vital to underpin the functioning of a society and economy. Due to ever-increasing number of Internet-connected Internet-of-Things (IoTs) / Industrial IoT (IIoT), and high volume of data generated and collected, security and scalability are becoming burning concerns for critical infrastructures in industry 4.0. The blockchain technology is essentially a distributed and secure ledger that records all the transactions into a hierarchically expanding chain of blocks. Edge computing brings the cloud capabilities closer to the computation tasks. The convergence of blockchain and edge computing paradigms can overcome the existing security and scalability issues. In this paper, we first introduce the IoT/IIoT critical infrastructure in industry 4.0, and then we briefly present the blockchain and edge computing paradigms. After that, we show how the convergence of these two paradigms can enable secure and scalable critical infrastructures. Then, we provide a survey on state-of-the-art for security and privacy, and scalability of IoT/IIoT critical infrastructures. A list of potential research challenges and open issues in this area is also provided, which can be used as useful resources to guide future research.

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“…Figure 2 compares a DAG and a blockchain. The precise details of how consensus is achieved in this setting is outside the scope of this paper and the interested reader may refer to [19] for recent work analysing aspects of security in DLTs of this kind. DAG-based ledgers traditionally rely on PoW for access control.…”

Section: B Dag-based Distributed Ledgersmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…For example, something comparable to the longest chain rule of Bitcoin may be applied to DAGs. The interested reader can refer to [19] for further details on this kind of consensus algorithm in DAGs. Alternatively, or indeed additionally, a voting algorithm such as [32], [33] can be used to achieve consensus in the presence of conflicting branches of the DAG.…”

Section: Writementioning

confidence: 99%

Access Control for Distributed Ledgers in the Internet of Things: A Networking Approach

Cullen

Ferraro

Sanders³

et al. 2022

IEEE Internet Things J.

Self Cite

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In the Internet of Things (IoT) domain, devices need a platform to transact seamlessly without a trusted intermediary. Although Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLTs) could provide such a platform, blockchains, such as Bitcoin, were not designed with IoT networks in mind, hence are often unsuitable for such applications: they offer poor transaction throughput and confirmation times, put stress on constrained computing and storage resources, and require high transaction fees. In this work, we consider a class of IoT-friendly DLTs based on directed acyclic graphs, rather than a blockchain, and with a reputation system in the place of Proof of Work (PoW). However, without PoW, implementation of these DLTs requires an access control algorithm to manage the rate at which nodes can add new transactions to the ledger. We model the access control problem and present an algorithm that is fair, efficient and secure. Our algorithm represents a new design paradigm for DLTs in which concepts from networking are applied to the DLT setting for the first time. For example, our algorithm uses distributed rate setting which is similar in nature to transmission control used in the Internet. However, our solution features novel adaptations to cope with the adversarial environment of DLTs in which no individual agent can be trusted. Our algorithm guarantees utilisation of resources, consistency, fairness, and resilience against attackers. All of this is achieved efficiently and with regard for the limitations of IoT devices. We perform extensive simulations to validate these claims.

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On the Resilience of DAG-Based Distributed Ledgers in IoT Applications

Cited by 48 publications

References 15 publications

Framework for determining the suitability of blockchain: Criteria and issues to consider

Framework for determining the suitability of blockchain: Criteria and issues to consider

Convergence of Blockchain and Edge Computing for Secure and Scalable IIoT Critical Infrastructures in Industry 4.0

Access Control for Distributed Ledgers in the Internet of Things: A Networking Approach

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