Occurrence, Impact on Agriculture, Human Health, and Management Strategies of Zearalenone in Food and Feed: A Review

Abstract

Mycotoxins represent an assorted range of secondary fungal metabolites that extensively occur in numerous food and feed ingredients at any stage during pre- and post-harvest conditions. Zearalenone (ZEN), a mycotoxin categorized as a xenoestrogen poses structural similarity with natural estrogens that enables its binding to the estrogen receptors leading to hormonal misbalance and numerous reproductive diseases. ZEN is mainly found in crops belonging to temperate regions, primarily in maize and other cereal crops that form an important part of various food and feed. Because of the significant adverse effects of ZEN on both human and animal, there is an alarming need for effective detection, mitigation, and management strategies to assure food and feed safety and security. The present review tends to provide an updated overview of the different sources, occurrence and biosynthetic mechanisms of ZEN in various food and feed. It also provides insight to its harmful effects on human health and agriculture along with its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

Ergot Alkaloids Mycotoxins in Cereals and Cereal-Derived Food Products: Characteristics, Toxicity, Prevalence, and Control Strategies

“…Each strategy has its own effectiveness, as many parameters, such as cost, safety issues, and the initial contamination levels, determine its success [100]. Mycotoxins can infect crops at any stage of the growing process, including harvesting, transportation, and storage [101]. Control of EA mycotoxins in cereals should focus on two main stages, namely, pre-harvest and post-harvest.…”

Occurrence of Zearalenone and Its Metabolites in the Blood of High-Yielding Dairy Cows at Selected Collection Sites in Various Disease States

“…In dairy cows, the risk of exposure to ZEN can be assessed directly by identifying mycotoxins in the feed matrix [ 6 ], or indirectly by analyzing the respective biomarkers in biological fluids and tissues. Feed matrices are widely applied to evaluate the risk [ 7 ] resulting from e.g., the presence of ZEN and its metabolites. However, this approach has several limitations.…”

“…However, the influence of very low, measurable concentrations of ZEN on the health status of dairy cows has never been investigated. Such mycotoxin concentrations are frequently encountered in plant materials that are used in the production of feed for dairy cattle [ 6 , 7 , 8 ].…”

The Effects of Zearalenone on the Localization and Expression of Reproductive Hormones in the Ovaries of Weaned Gilts

“…Various grains and feeds are pervasively polluted by mycotoxins, which causes serious threats to human and animal wellbeing as well as global commercial trade [ 8 ]. It is well-documented that as an exogenous estrogen, ZEA can cause hyperestrogenism in pigs [ 12 ].…”

“…ZEA-contaminated feed has posed a widespread threat to animals and human beings due to its high stability during storage and heat treatment [ 5 , 6 ]. ZEA can interfere with hormone metabolism by binding with estrogen receptors, and thereby cause reproductive disorders [ 7 , 8 ]. Pigs are the most sensitive animals to ZEA [ 9 ].…”